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IFR Systems
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Contents
Contents
…Genesis of the Approach; …ATC at work; …Who's
in Charge?; …Using the System;
…Flight Check of IFR Navaids by FAA;
…Letters of Agreement; …Major ATC Pilot Problems; …ATC
Separation; …Final Approach;
…Block Altitudes; …ATC
RADAR Sectors; …Separation
Standards; …Center Facilities; …Radar Help; ...RADAR
Altitudes; …IFR Separation from IFR; …IFR
Separation from VFR; …VFR
Separation
from VFR; …Visual Separation;
…Diverging Course; …Radar
Surface Movement; …When
ATC Screws-Up; …Radar Failure;
…IFR Without Radar; …ARTCC Weather Radar; …Radar
Service Terminated; …LORAN;
…Global Positioning System (GPS);
…Uncontrolled Airspace; …ATC Weather; …Runways;
…Runway Departure Safety Zones;
…Instrument Departure's Three Zones
of Obstacle Clearance; …VASI;
…Tri-color VASI; …PAPI; …AWOS
Weather; …Reading Charts; ...IFR
RNAV Charts; …Using ATC in Emergencies; …Letters for Words; …Transition
Level; …Terminator Legs on Charts;
…New Way IFR; …Navigational
Database; …STARS; ...Fixes; …Altitude
Database; …ATC's Variables;
... Be Ready for IFR Changes;
…What is IFR?; ...IFR
after 9/11; ...Instrument
Technology Origins; ... Now
You're Playing in my Backyard; ...
Genesis
of the Approach
The flight time alone to make an ILS costs $1,800,000. The
pilots of the airplanes are rated as airspace system inspection
pilots. They were specialists in making new procedures as needed
that are then sent to the Flight Procedures Section. The computerized
airport information is obtained from Oklahoma City and is reviewed
by the specialists to select the type of procedure that will
best fit into the terrain and obstructions. The selected procedure
is then fitted into the arrival structure and existing en route
structure. Last, the specialist comes up with a missed approach
procedure.
In 1970 I had an occasion to fly with the FAA specialists in a DC-3 while they put in the ILS at Salinas, CA. We flew from Oakland and flew for four hours around and out from the Salinas airport never above 1200 feet. We landed for lunch and flew another four hours doing the approach over and over in its entirety. A month later I discovered that there was something wrong with the procedure and they were going to do the entire flight all over again.
Apparently there was something that the flight inspection aircrew that followed on to flight check the procedure found did not fit in the TERPS requirements. When finished the procedure is sent to the FAA Flight Procedures Branch in Oklahoma City. Finally, the National Flight Data Center reviews the procedure, checks all the numbers and sends it to a cartographer. The procedure is produced as a NOS chart as accurate as possible in every TERPS requirement and specification.
ATC
at Work
The VFR conditions responsibility to see and avoid rests
with you, the pilot. ATC’s responsibility, authority and
accountability for separation exists only under IFR conditions
for IFR vs. IFR flights. A controller who ‘violates’
minimum separation standards is under zero- tolerance standards
of performance. All other ATC services are subordinate to IFR
vs. IFR separation. Because of this responsibility and accountability
the controller has the authority to assign IFR aircraft altitudes,
headings, routes, and clearances. Under the same VFR circumstances
the controller can ignore VFR flights but he cannot order or
command. For VFR aircraft the controller is limited to advisories
and suggestions. As a VFR PIC you can reject any ATC advisories
or suggestions.
A computer detected non-collision bust of 500' or less will be
addressed by administrative action. (Warning letter) A loss of
separation reported by the computer can require re-certification
of the controller. Reading back ATC clearances as you have heard
them is a good practice in the event of ATC's failure to correct
the read-back. If you are directed to call a particular number
by ATC reply "Roger" but you do not "have"
to make the call. Instead fill out the NASA form to protect your
behind.
If an approach has "radar required" as a note, the
approach cannot be flown except under a radar watch. On any approach
it is good procedure for you to request a "call" for
any fix even though you may be able to determine the fix with
your equipment. Some radar fixes do not appear on the charts.
You can request that ATC call the FAF for you if you wish.
On an approach the radar vector approach gate is normally a mile
outside the marker or the FAF. Radar normally tries to vector
you well outside the gate but can on request give you a close
in or far out vector. Don't let ATC vector you in so close to
the marker that you don't have time to stabilize the approach.
Don't accept vectors to the marker.
You are asked to maintain a speed to match that of the following
jet. ATC has three techniques to place you into this situation:
the tight vector to the FAF, the high speed final, and the slam
dunk. All of these are contrary to what you would use in training.
I have, on occasion, requested a vector 360 so as not to be pressed
by following traffic. ATC may request that you maintain speed
up to a certain point, even the threshold. If ATC asks for a
higher approach speed than you can handle...just say "unable".
You are PIC. Ask for another option. If ATC gives you a too steep/fast
arrival from above the glide slope, miss the approach and ask
for another vector. It is important that both ATC and you have
an understanding as to when you will slow down.
The next problem is being held well above approach altitude.
Years ago at Las Vegas I heard an airliner being so held and
then told to descend for the approach. The pilot complained throughout
the descent and finally had to execute a missed. I later found
out over coffee and doughnuts with a neighbor that he had been
the Captain involved. Getting down for the small aircraft involves
getting the aircraft as dirty as possible and keeping the engine
warm. You could try to do this after a high speed descent but
you risk engine damage. It is wise to pre-plan your procedure
selection before it happens and advise ATC of your intentions.
Don't promise ATC anything you can't deliver. Call upon controllers
for help during emergency situations, but as PIC you must make
and stand behind your decisions.
Who's
In Charge?
ATC exists to ensure enough safe separation between IFR traffic
in controlled airspace. Additionally ATC will provide control
tower airport services, route control for IFR aircraft, and weather/traffic
information. The advent of radar dramatically changes many of
the ATC functions giving ATC the ability, but not the responsibility,
to control and navigate aircraft. ATC is not primarily responsible
for obstacle clearance as written and diagramed in approach plates
and charts. The pilot who expects ATC to take over these latter
responsibility is not using a full deck of FARs. However, anytime
ATC issues an off-airway clearance or vector, ATC is responsible
for terrain clearance. It is up to the pilot to know if an ATC
vector or other instruction is correct or incorrect. If doubt
exists, the pilot should get a clarification. If safety is not
a problem do as ATC directs, but if something seems wrong and
cannot be adjusted to your satisfaction, declare an emergency
and take the safest option.
Student and I had requested IFR to Oakland and received routing
to San Francisco. We waited for new clearance flew it and made
full stop. Requested Napa and received routing to Livermore;
waited for new clearance flew it only to be put into a 25 minute
holding pattern. Flew the hold three times and then canceled
clearance. Requested IFR to Concord. (Home) It was an excellent
lesson in how the system works.
Using
the System
Knowing what to expect is when the pilot holds the winning
hand. Then the pilot is prepared to question any change of direction
or altitude. He is also prepared to follow any ATC directive
because it is within expectations.
ATC is regulated by rules not readily available to the pilot.
The antenna system available and in use may limit ATC to requiring
aircraft to fly the full procedure instead of getting vectors.
With vectors there will be no procedure turns. A ceiling 500'
above minimum vectoring altitude or minimum instrument altitude
allows the controller to vector for a visual approach so long
as visibility is three miles. Once the airport is in sight and
reported so to ATC you can get a visual approach clearance. At
larger airports you must report a specific runway before being
able to get your clearance. An alternative to this procedure
is for you to identify and acknowledge that you see a specific
aircraft to follow as specified by ATC. By doing so you relieve
ATC of any avoidance accountability. A visual approach is not
an IFR procedure even when on an IFR flight plan.
Each radar screen station usually has two specialists: a radar
controller and a flight data controller.
There must be an instrument approach procedure before you can get a visual approach. A contact approach does not require that there be an instrument approach procedure.
When weather is variable about vectoring minimums the controller may bring you in for a look. This means he will bring you into the final approach course in the hopes that conditions will break for a visual approach. This vector will take you into the vector 'gate'. The 'gate' is a point that radar uses one mile before the FAF. The vector clearance includes your distance from the marker, altitude to maintain until established and the "cleared for the (type & runway) approach". Any vector inside the 'gate' must be approved and accepted by the pilot since there will be little time to make adjustments.
Just today had the specialist called the outer marker by the
name of the marker for another airport, nearby. Completely confused
the pilot flying. It took several communications to get things
straight. First we had to confirm that the clearance was for
our aircraft. Then we had to clarify the name of the fix, especially
after the controller used it incorrectly a second time.
When on an approach, momentary 'radio problems' may make you
miss the tower giving you RVR minimums that preclude you from
making the approach. Should the radio problems persist until
you have passed the FAF, you can shoot the approach.
There are several ways to get an IFR clearance. The easiest is at a controlled airport and entering the Tower En route program. The second easiest is where the Tower En route clearance may not be available. You just ask for a Tower En route to an approved destination and as soon as you get into the system ask for an amendment.
Pre-filing is always an adventure since it is very unlikely you will get what you filed for unless you use the AF/D and get a 'preferred route'. Even with the preferred route filed and given as a clearance, you will probably be vectored across the corners. Telling ATC that you have LORAN or GPS capability makes cutting corners all the more likely. It does little good to ask for short-cuts from an approach or departure control. Wait until you get handed off to the next facility and begin negotiating there.
I often get the feeling that the way you perform on the radio and in following instructions makes a great difference in how ATC accepts your negotiating requests. Sometimes a delay in getting a short-cut seems to depend on letting conflicting traffic to clear first.
The most interesting of system entries is from an uncontrolled airport when you use a phone to get a void time clearance. Most of the AIM references to this system entry has not been changed since the advent of the cellular phone. My recommendation would be to get all loaded and ready to go and then phone the FSS for your clearance. If you tell them that you are ready, they can get a very short 'time off' for you. ATC likes this since it does not tie up so much airspace. A ten-minute time/altitude block on an airway or radar sector can cause quite a traffic back-up.
The 'pop-up' entry is the easiest if you can set yourself up properly. This means that you can position yourself over a 'known' location or intersection, have the correct contact frequency, and say what you need to say to get into the system. You should have the proper charts and plates available and perhaps even studied.
The 'pop-up' can be a bit dicey if you make radio contact but are below an altitude where ATC cannot issue a clearance until they have radar contact. I faced this situation on a May, 2000 light between Salina KS, and Kansas City, MO. I had no charts or plates, but with the help of ATC was able to complete the flight safely. ATC has two major levels of operation. Flying and working by the book until no one is watching that then doing whatever works is good-to-go.
Flight
Check of IFR Navaids by FAA
--Specific intervals
--Fix accuracy
--Centerline
--Missed obstacles
--Approach obstacles
--Fly edges of approach area
--Fly approach all the way at minimums
Letters-of-Agreement
An LOA puts in writing the extent to which ATC can pass information
from sector to sector and airspace to airspace by Standard Operating
Practice (SOP). These LOA/SOPs cover parachute jumping, military
operations, airspace delegation, SVFR procedures, emergency responsibility,
and IFR procedures.
The 20 centers of the U.S. subdivide authority and responsibility
to other facilities through LOAs. The LOA set airspace dimensions,
procedures, responsibility, authority, time periods, sectors.
LOAs can exist between two airport Class D airspaces. Pre-set
LOA reduces the communications and procedure stress by working
according to a plan.
Different divisions of ATC have developed methods of moving traffic via a system that is relatively unknown and unknowable to pilots. Towers can launch traffic into TRACON air space as part of a departure clearance including a transponder code that tells TRACON about the aircraft.
TRACONs work on a system of 1000' vertical separation and three mile lateral separation. LOL aircraft will depart along a route with an altitude restriction so that the departure allows multiple aircraft to get in the air and on their way. This is a pre-coordinated procedure developed in-house by ATC to make a system work where otherwise it wouldn't.
APREQ is a variation of the LOL in which individual controllers make an 'Approval Request'. A controller from one position are moved to other conditions to help maintain a wider awareness of the entire system. A pilot request may require that a controller make an APREQ to allow a selected aircraft to intrude into another controllers airspace to facilitate its movement. As a pilot, knowing that APREQ exists makes it possible for me to take airway shortcuts that avoid extensive en route excursions.
Every controller is give a three dimensional airspace designed to keep similar procedures together and make the workload reasonable. I once sat for 15 minutes at a sector screen where the controller had to talk like a tobacco auctioneer because the supervisor had combined his sector with another. It was disconcerting to see how this controller was so loaded up. One incompetent pilot could have sent the entire mess into a collapsing house of cards.
Major
ATC Pilot Problems
--Entering ARSA/TCA without authorization
--Runway incursions
--Altitude deviations.
ATC
Separation
ATC separation is done in three dimensions, vertical, lateral,
and longitudinal.
Vertical separation is based on altitude. The amount of altitude separation is different for IFR from IFR and IFR from VFR and VFR from VFR. The hemispheric rule usually applies but is often evaded when aircraft are being sequenced for approach, separation will be maintained. Obstacle clearance is 1000'. Every altitude assigned must be above the minimum vectoring altitude. (MVA) VFR aircraft can be cleared to fly below the MVA.
Once cleared for IFR you are separated in all airspace except Class G. An IFR pilot can fly in Class G without dealing with ATC but without ATC being at all responsible. ATC will separate only IFR from IFR in Class E airspace. The tower of Class D will do its best with or without radar to provide separation but VFR separation is not guaranteed. Class C ATC separates all IFR from IFR as well as VFR inside the 10 mile ring. In the 20-mile outer ring of Class C IFR from IFR is provided but not from VFR. This is because VFRs are not required to accept ATC control between the 10 and 20-mile arcs.
TRSAs which surround some Class D airspace separate IFR from IFR but not from VFR since VFR is not required to participate. Class B provides total separations of everybody from everybody else. Class A gives total separation. 18,000 to 29,000' IFR from IFR is 1000'; above 29000' its 2000' vertical.
Lateral separation from displayed obstacles is 3 miles. Visual separation is not allowed by IFR aircraft from obstacles, even if in sight. Radar separation remains in effect. ATC radar is used to maintain airspace separations such as special use airspace (SUA) and jump zones.
Longitudinal separation is normally 3-miles in trail. The
aircraft in front cannot be heavier than the plane behind and
the tower must be able to see the runway's turnoffs. Where wake
turbulence is a factor four-mile separation is required by small
aircraft behind large aircraft and five miles behind the 757.
Small aircraft must be six miles behind very large aircraft.
Small aircraft are all that weigh less than 41,000 lbs. Once
a pilot accepts responsibility for separation by saying that
he has a 'point-out' in sight then what happens is totally his
responsibility until he says he has lost sight again. Best option
is to request vectors for greater spacing.
When you ask ATC for a change in altitude, you must realize that
what happens TOTALLY depends on the amount of separation such
a change would allow. Those of you who fly slick airplanes realize
that failure to descend means that you will have difficulty slowing
down when you get closer in. The turbo does not enjoy being shock-cooled.
Just last week we were denied a descent and vectored on to the
ILS just in time to have a false glide-slope center. The same
thing had happened several months before and the required rate
of descent could not be maintained because of the turbo. We executed
the published missed far above DH. This time we expedited the
descent to catch the FAF altitude check but it was neither pretty
nor smooth.
On the missed we headed toward another airport and were shortly informed that we could expect a long hold. I had the pilot slow to approach speed some 15-miles out from the holding fix. Just as we got to the fix we were cleared for the approach. Piece of cake. Our slowing gave the controller the separation that he needed so we did not need to hold.
Final Approach
On final you should realized that at the outer marker you are
five miles out and 1500’ above the runway. Within the lateral
limits of the CDI the slope or steps of the approach will keep
us above any obstacles. As we descend to 200’ above decision
height the lateral limits become so constrained that full CDI
deflection occurs at the end of the runway in only 500’.
Properly flown you have guaranteed obstacle clearance. The new
TERPS criteria obstacle clearance above obstructions at five
miles is 755’ and at DH the new criteria provide 122’.
Non-precision approaches provide 250’ obstruction clearance
throughout the approach. The lights that have reference value
for an approach and landing are the runway lights, the end identifiers,
approach and VASI.
Block
Altitudes
There will be times when IFR flight conditions make it difficult
to impossible to maintain an altitude. Actually almost any time
you can request a block altitude. The block gives you a practice
playground between two altitudes that are above the minimum instrument
altitude of FAR 91.177 or minimum vectoring altitude. This way
you can legally fly so as to be actual by picking up clouds a
few hundred feet higher or lower inside your block. Cloud scooping
it is called.
ATC
RADAR Sectors
Controllers live by rules in 7110.65. A radar controller
separates aircraft as they move through "his" airspace.
ARTCC or Air Route Traffic Control Center cover all the wide
open spaces between Terminal facilities. Terminals funnel aircraft
to and from their airports. Airspace is transferred from ARTCC
to Terminals and thence to airports by Letter of Agreement (LOA)s.
"Letters of Agreement", often unpublished and unknown
to pilots, exist between ATC facilities. These letters allow
special flight routes, altitudes and procedures.
"Radar contact" does not guarantee terrain clearance
any time you are below MOCA or MEA altitudes. ATC radar airspace
is different than a pilot's airspace. A tower may by LOA (letter
of agreement) lose control of a part of its space under certain
weather conditions or because of the needs of an adjacent airport
approach. It helps the pilot to know the ATC preferred direction
of traffic and airspace alignment. Hayward has a LOA with TRACON
to release the top 1000' of its Class D airspace at all times.
Alameda has a similar agreement. CCR and APC release to Travis
control of airspace above a fixed altitude during IFR conditions.
This appears to the pilot as part of the SVFR clearance.
Some sectors and frequencies are more "quiet" than others. On weekends sectors may be combined so the frequency you normally select will be only monitored so as to assign the active frequency. One sector will feed into another sector by means of a "handoff" Several such sectors may feed to a final controller. If too many aircraft are loading up the final sector some of the outlying sectors may be required to "spin" (hold) aircraft to lessen the final controller's load. The "spin" may consist of a completely different routing.
The handing off of an aircraft from one sector to another requires coordination. This means asking approval via phone/computer of the adjoining sector's controller if the will accept another aircraft. Controllers are not allowed to violate adjoining sectors. Your vector may be simply to avoid an adjacent sector. Every favor one pilot receives, delays another. The controllers can't make all the phone calls in time to meet requests in complex environments. Computerized handoffs are rapidly replacing the phone.
Aircraft on the controllers screen have a data tag that gives call sign, type, groundspeed, altitude readout and may include destination, type of flight and a controller letter of identification. The new automated handoff has some problems since the airspace sectors is often subdivided several times. When a controller notes that an aircraft is leaving his airspace he tells the computer. The computer then decided who gets the aircraft. The originating controller may not know who gets it. If the aircraft fails to make the proper radio contact we have a loose cannon in the system. When the Mode S transponders get used every aircraft will have a permanent code.
A "point out" is similar to a handoff but allows an aircraft to nip through a corner of a controllers airspace without changing frequency or making radio contact. ATC can do this without the pilots knowledge.
Separation
Standards
Some ATC calls are courtesy calls, some are ‘point outs’,
some are advisories, and some are mandatory advisories. The pilot
must learn to listen to the tonal variations of the controller
to separate one from the other since there is no other obvious
distinction.
ATC contract..."provide separation". If standards are violated a "deal" occurs which causes economic and training problems for controller. To protect themselves from the minimums controllers maintain greater than minimum required separation. Separation can be both horizontal or vertical and need not be both. a ‘snitch patch’ in the computer tells if separation is less than standard. Makes a ‘deal’ for the controller
Standard separation is determined by aircraft type, altitude, type of ATC facility, stage of flight (departure, cruise, approach) weather, and antenna distance. If visual separation exists by pilots or by ATC the separation may be much closer than 5 miles. If aircraft are separated by altitude the separation may be as little as 2.5 miles.
A limiting separation factor is the distance of the aircraft from the antenna, class of airspace and size of aircraft (heavy). Minimum is miles within 40 nm of antenna; 5 miles beyond 40 nm. Center (ARTCC) uses 5 nm standard separation and 1000’ below FL290 regardless. Terminal areas most likely 3 nm and 1000’ with visual separation allowed. Vertical rules are same everywhere. There are no standards of separation for VFR aircraft. Only in Classed B and C is IFR separation mandatory. Class B separation of IFR/VFR is 500’ and 1500’. Class C separation is 500’ and ‘green between. In Class C there are no mandatory advisories. VFR advisories are given as load allows.
IFR aircraft fly in a cylinder 10 nm (ARTCC) to 6 nm (terminal) diameter. The cylinder extends 1000' above and below the aircraft, ATC normally allows much more space.
Your encoding altimeter must be within 300' because the "snitch patch" of center's radar is set to alarm if altitudes encroach on 700' separation. An encoder off by 300' could set off the alarm. If you should wander more than 300' off IFR assigned altitude and ATC questions, delay your response until altitude is within 300'. Better yet, advise "unreadable" while making the correction. "Snitch" is found (1993) only in ARTCC radars.
A radar target may not be in ATC contact so the altitude is only ‘indicated’ not confirmed. Traffic advisories are a part of flight following which includes weather advisories, terrain, obstruction, and low altitude alerts. asking for flight following and being given flight following leaves out the rest of radar flight services. You can even request that traffic advisories be omitted from flight following.
An IFR flight with visual contact on VFR aircraft is allowed to maneuver to avoid without regard to an ATC clearance. The radar controller is required to advise you if your target merges with another on the screen. The advisory may just to indicate how far above or below you the altimeter reading indicates. Giving ATC your indication of visual contact relieves them of responsibility. ‘Mode-C intruders’ are aircraft that have encoders but are not in communication contact with ATC. Many radars can give you two-three minute warnings if such an aircraft is in conflict with your route.
Center
Facilities
Radar is a multifaceted term. The antenna of a center is
known as a sensor. Several sensors have their radar returns made
into a mosaic the presents a single picture via digital computers
for each controller’s sector.
Each antenna either an ARSR-3 or -4 has two parts, the search
antenna and the transponder interrogator. Some -3s cannot get
primary targets at all.
Center antenna turn slowly and search in slightly over 10-degree arcs at a time. At a distance the 10-degree arc covers so much distance that a target blip can be a mile long at the 100-mile range setting. At five turns a minute the antenna a target can move several hundred feet between return updates.
Updates are processed to allow the best antenna data to the controller. This data can be used to forecast future positions and to give direct route vectors with a couple of clicks. Projections allow conflict alerts and Minimum Safe altitude Warnings (MSAW) warnings. None of these work within 25 miles of your destination. Carry a sectional.
Center can help with weather because of the multiple antenna
used. One antenna can show the front of a weather condition while
another antenna will show the back side. Light precipitation
is shown as slashes. Where two antenna (sensors) have overlapping
slashes there will be areas of Hs. Pilots should be told by ATC
to avoid areas of such Hs.
Radar Help
Center radar is not good enough to safely call step down
fixes. TRACON can call fixes that are on their screens. There
is no way to know extent of radar coverage to secondary airports
unless you get some idea of the minimum vectoring altitude from
the SVFR clearances given. SVFR clearances usually give an altitude
that in poor conditions indicates the letter-of-agreement separation
altitude of a Class D and TRACON. You might just ask ATC what
it is.
All radar facilities have differing capabilities. Center antenna rotate slower than TRACONs and has a more limited vectoring precision. Center is a mosaic of a number of long range radars and a given controller has a limited sector scan for working aircraft in a specific area. Within 40 miles of the antenna separation is 3-miles; beyond that it is 5-miles.
I have, on occasion, had ATC indicate that I am drifting off an airway centerline. This is even though my CDI is centered. The solution is to indicate that you would like a vector to intercept his center line. It is the pilots responsibility to know where both high and low terrain lies. This information is best obtained from a sectional.
The NEXRAD is a set known as WSR-88D which has both a clear air mode and a precipitation mode. In the precipitation mode the size of droplets can be determined.
Radar Altitudes
–Radar contact means nothing relating to altitude safety.
--Minimum Vector Altitude (MVA) TRACON chart may take you lower than you like.
Query
–Minimum Instrument Altitude (MIA) used by ATC Center
--Minimum Safe Altitude (MSAW) Warns ATC without regard to other terrain.
--Minimum En route Altitude (MEA) is arc around navaid.
--Emergency Safe Altitude (ESA) is used by military.
--Minimum Off-Route Altitude (MORA) by Jeppesen grids.
--Off-Route Obstacle Clearance Altitude (OROCA) Government charts.
IFR Separation
from IFR
--VFR-on-Top and visual climb/descents responsibility: A
VFR on top clearance is all right below a cloud deck or between
layers as long as you can remain VFR and meet cloud clearance-criteria.
ARTCC 5 miles/1000' Relieves ATC only during altitude change.
Class B 3 miles/1000' Other aircraft need not be visible.
Class C 3 miles/1000' Use when possible.
IFR Separation from VFR
ARTCC nothing When IFR pilot agrees to keep visual separation,
ATC is relieved of responsibility.
Class B 1.5 miles/500'
Class C conflict/500' Pilot may climb, descend or get closer
than ATC minimums.
TRSA 1.5 miles/500'
VFR Separation from VFR
ARTCC nothing
Class B 1,5 miles No requirement but you may get traffic advisories
and safety alerts.
Class C nothing Be careful in Class C.
TRSA 1.5 miles
Visual Separation
ARTCC limited Must report aircraft in sight to ARTCC
Class B allowed then must report passing clear. Seldom used.
Class C allowed ATC controller uses his visual contact of allowed
aircraft involved to expedite
TRSA When a pilot acknowledges visual contact he relieves ATC
of responsibility for
separation.
Note: There is no time duration limit on this exchange
of separation responsibility. A pilot can hand back this responsibility
to ATC by advising that visual contact cannot be maintained or
is lost.
Diverging
Course
ARTCC no
Class B allowed This means IFR aircraft at same altitude may
be allowed to break minimums if their
Class C allowed courses are divergent.
TRSA allowed
Radar Surface Movement
Guidance and control system (SMGCS); Special low visibility,
RVR less than 1200', taxi routes with lighting and surface markings.
Green taxiway centerline lights, 2 red lights on each side of
the taxiway serve as stop bars, these are ATC controlled. At
no time shall a pilot cross an illuminated red stop bar. Flashing
yellow lights are across taxiway in runup area as taxi-holding
position lights. Position markings are pink circular numbered
marking along taxiway. 3 amber lights across center of taxiway
are holding bar indicators.
See the AIM for latest on airport markings...a MUST
When
ATC Screws-Up
The ATC system requires that the pilot maintain the situational
awareness required to know when something is missing from a clearance,
a route, frequency change, or a procedure. Be prepared to question
ATC instead of waiting for them to recognize a problem. Be prepared
to protect yourself by knowing what is supposed to happen.
Radar Failure
If approach facilities do not have radar...no traffic can
be seen. When radar fails at a radar facility two backups exist:
DARC is used by Center. CENRAP is used by Approach
When ARTS computer fails all aircraft are given the same discrete
code, slashes appear instead of numbers. When a complete radar
and computer failure occurs we have a reversion to CENRAP which
will use a radar signal from one of centers antennae. Separation
becomes 5 miles instead of 3. Mode C is unusable so all altitudes
must be reported. No altitude or conflict alerts can be given.
Aircraft are put into lines at different altitudes and processed
to the approach and landing in order. Pilots should expect requests
for position and altitude.
IFR
Without Radar
An approach is called "single threaded" if only one
IFR operation at time is allowed due to lack of radar coverage.
--Plan to execute the full approach procedure in non-radar conditions.
--Know and obey the altitude restrictions.
--You must make the required position reports.
--Leaving an altitude
--Procedure turn inbound
--Final approach fix
ARTCC
Weather Radar
ARTCC radar has three keys WX 1-2 and 3. which will give rain
return information on a digitized circuit. It takes 4000 feet
of clouds to make rain. If its wet where you are, figure to climb
at least 4000' to top the clouds. This information must be requested
by the pilot. Digitized Hs on his screen indicates weather to
be avoided. The controller is obligated to give you the worst
possible interpretation of any weather return.
1995 NEXRAD radar coverage is 100% east of North Dakota line
to the Gulf. WSR-88 display precipitation and wind if particulates
are present in the air. Data will go to Center Weather Service
Units and Flight Service Stations. 175 antennas will give circular
coverage out to 285 miles up to 10,000'. Most will be away from
major airports about 10 miles. It can sector scan over airport
and down main weather runway. In the future these displays will
be in the cockpit.
Radar
Service Terminated
Becoming overly dependent on radar can cause problems. You should
be prepared to operate in a non-radar environment. This means
defining your own fixes, required reporting points, and altitudes.
Without radar to help, your are responsible that your position
and altitude will provide terrain clearance. Your preflight preparation
made you aware of terrain and obstacles that intruded into your
approach route. Review the chart to make sure that the correct
frequencies are set. abandon the approach if you feel that something
isn't right.
Radar service terminated means that the pilot will become totally
responsible for the altitudes, headings, terrain, and aircraft
on his flight route. Some radar services are automatically terminated
in IFR conditions as:
1. Cancellation of IFR flight plan except where basic radar service
is always provided as in Airspace Classes, B, C, and TRSAs.
2. When on an instrument approach ATC advises to change to the
CTAF or tower frequency.
3. On completion of a radar approach.
4. VFR aircraft told to change frequency, or squawk VFR.
5. There is no flight difficulty that can’t be made more complex by
technology. Protect yourself at all times was good advice when I was
fighting golden gloves, still good advice for pilots.
LORAN
If you have non IFR LORAN or GPS they can be used as advisory.
LORAN like GPS can fly you into terrain unless it has the correct
data base. The mutual use of Loran or GPS by two aircraft in
the vicinity of a given intersection or navaid greatly increases
the likelihood of a mid-air. The accuracy of these makes such
an accident probable where with the use of VORs it was unlikely
but possible.
Global
Positioning System (GPS)
Paper charts will still be required in addition to a local
GPS transmitter that may or may not be capable of avoiding any
military induced GPS errors. A faulty navigation signal is flagged
within 30 seconds.
For Receiver Autonomous Integrity Monitoring (RAIM) six signals
are only required so many areas and approaches will have RAIM
"holes'. GPS overlays will be added to current approaches
primarily to improve course guidance. FAR 91.205(d)(2) says that
for IFR navigation equipment appropriate to the ground facilities
to be used must be operational and on the aircraft. The greatest
problem to be resolved is the IFR approved GPS which allows DME
and ADF substitutions on a published overlay.
GPS can confirm the information on the HI, altimeter, airspeed
indicator, VOR, ADF and correct the DME. GPS can be used to point
toward the airport. (See GPS material under VFR cross-country)
The military accuracy will be available to all as of April 1996.
If flying with a hand-held or panel mounted GPS not certified
as IFR, just file ‘GPS equipped’ under remarks
There are 4600 GPS overlay approaches. Fixes have been converted
to GPS waypoints. There is no vertical information at the waypoints.
All GPS navigation is TO a waypoint. Some synthetic fixes have
been created to allow outbound headings and for increased GPS
sensitivity on final approach. Timing is losing its importance
for determining the missed approach point.
Waypoint type
ADRIW is what is called a "sensor FAF". A Sensor FAF is a
final approach waypoint created and added to the database sequence of
waypoints to support GPS navigation of a published, no FAF, non-precision
approach.
The other useful thing to know about the fixes with their names in ()'s is
that ATC doesn't know about them. So, on the approach in question, if the
controller were to ask you for a position report, and you were to say,
"We're just crossing ADRIW outbound", he wouldn't know where ADRIW
was.
There are GPS Phase II and III overlay procedure charts. On
NOS charts there is no way to tell the phase. Jeppesen provides
a list. Phase II requires that navaids be available but you are
not required to use them.
Phase III charts have GPS or ... this form of GPS is a stand
alone procedure. On airways you can use GPS if you also have
standard navaid devices.
GPS provides an opportunity to seamlessly bring arriving and
departing aircraft in and out of airports including taxiing.
The WAAS system will allow due near the end of the year 2000
will allow 3000 non-precision runways to be used for precision
GPS approaches with an system error of 21 feet. WAAS will allow
accurate altimeter settings and reduce the 90% of CFIT accidents
that occur within 15 miles of an airport. WAAS has precisely
surveyed station locations that correct standard GPS system errors.
Uncontrolled
Airspace
Uncontrolled airspace is just that. Any current instrument
pilot can fly IFR in uncontrolled airspace wherever it's IFR.
Airspace below 700/1200 AGL is uncontrolled. You don't need an
IFR flight plan or clearance to operate there, regardless of
weather. You do need to follow 91.177 and 91.179 regarding minimums,
however. Can't be done? ATC says the pilot is on his own until
reaching controlled airspace.
The ultimate IFR question is whether what you did was the right
thing to do. Any arrival or departure from an uncontrolled airport
will involve IFR flight in Class G airspace. This means at least
some small portion of the flight does not have the services of
ATC for IFR separation. The purposes of the 1200 and 700 foot
transitions areas is meant to maintain IFR separation services
on the approach corridor for as long and as low as possible.
There are a few Class E airports and a number of Class D airports
that have Class E extensions activated by below
VFR minimums. These Class E airspaces touch the ground and have
ATC IFR separation services. The Jepp charts show such airports
with a small E but NOS charts show nothing. The sectional is
the best place to look. Look where an FSS airport used to exist
or where an official weather observer was once available or has
been replaced with ASOS/AWOS. The type of approach has nothing
to do with the type of airspace. VFR flights will require a SVFR
clearance.
The FAA can cite you for a violation when flying IFR in uncontrolled
airspace even though FAR 91.173 says you don't need a flight
plan or a clearance. FAR 91.155 allows you to fly IFR in uncontrolled
airspace. Once you get above 700’ AGL you IMMEDIATELY must
comply with the required VFR cloud clearance. Better to stay
low and find some 1200’ transition airspace before looking
for an area where you can climb with required cloud clearance.
The FAA will catch you on FAR 91.13 for careless and reckless
flight if you don’t have the cloud clearance.
ATC
Weather
Within limits wind determines the runway ATC will select. When
wind is less than 5 knots ATC may select a noise-abatement runway
or even a downwind runway. Visibility determines the right to
do an approach, land, or takeoff. ATC is a source of advice but
the action is up to the PIC.
Ceiling requires a decision on an alternate, if the destination
weather is forecasts or reported not to give a ceiling of 2000'
one hour before or after plus three miles of visibility at ETA.
Precision alternates must have 600 and 2, non-precision 800 and
2. Ceilings from any source are legal for Part 91.
Runways
--Precision
This is the safe bet with DH 200’ HAT, lights and 1/2 visibility
--Precision with obstacles inside DH
DH 250 or higher, 1 mile visibility, may have lights. Over 250
DH means obstacles inside DH.
--Non-precision
Could have 1/2 mile visibility, clear approach path on centerline.
VASI and/or VDP, usually the ILS runway
--Non-precision with obstacles below the MDA
VASI say no obstacles on final from four miles out. If you are
unfamiliar you may or may not have obstacles.
Runway
Departure Safety Zones
An ATC clearance does not assure obstacle avoidance during
departure. Obstacle clearance occurs only when ATC radar provides
navigational direction such as radar vectors. Until such assistance
is obtained it is the responsibility of the pilot use visual
charts to avoid hitting anything. DPs allow departure planning
and reduce communications. Use an area chart or sectional to
confirm terrain and location of obstacles. Advise departure of
your need for a specific departure or DP due to limited climb
performance. ATC will accommodate your request.
Instrument
Departure's Three Zones of Obstacle Clearance
--The first zone is from the departure end, 500' to each side
and 35' high in a 15-degree fan to each side for a distance of
two miles in a 40:1 slope or 152 ft/nm.
--Zone 2 extends from a point on the centerline of the runway
and 2000' from the approach end. This zone extends in a semicircle
arc toward the departure end at a 40:1 slope until reaching minimum
enroute altitude (MEA).
--Zone 3 extends from the same point in a 40:1 slope toward the
approach end of the runway until reaching the MEA.
VASI
If you have visual contact with the runway the FAA recommends
flying the VASI if it is available. If there is a visual descent
point (VDP) you can descend below the MDA if you have visual reference
as required by FAR 91.175(c)(3). You cannot descend below the
MDA before the VDP.
According to FAR 91.129 (d)(3) a flight into a VASI at a controlled
airport with the tower open must remain at or above the glide path
until lower is required for landing. The rule applies only to
a VASI and not to other glide slope light system. The rule applies
only if the tower is operating.
VASI extends to 4 n.m. and PAPI to 4 s.m. unless installed since
July 2004. All PAPIs must be resurveyed by local authorities (Not FAA) Any
PAPIs installed since mid-2004 are, or should be, 4 n.m
The three-bar VASIs has two glide paths. The far two bars
are for large aircraft; the two near bars are for small planes.
Normal glide path is 3 degrees and upper glide path is 1/4 degree
higher. Some locations have 4.5 degree glide path to give obstacle
clearance. VASI is not part of instrument landing system. An
inoperative VASI does not affect IFR minimums. Obstacle clearance
up to 4 miles or less and 10 degrees to each side.
Tri-color
VASI
Green is on glide path, white is above and amber/red when
below.
PAPI
Four lights to left of runway. 4 white for high 2 with/two
red for just right, four red for low.
VASI extends to 4 n.m. and PAPI to 4 s.m. unless installed since
July 2004. All PAPIs must be resurveyed by local authorities (Not FAA) Any
PAPIs installed since mid-2004 are, or should be, 4 n.m
AWOS
Weather
--AWOS-3 is official weather.
--Airport may qualify as alternate airport with AWOS-3.
--AWOS-3 gives altimeter, ceiling, visibility, wind, temperature, dew point, and density altitude above 1000'
--At controlled airports AWOS-3 is available only when ATIS is
not.
--Some AWOS have a phone number listed in A/F Directory.
Reading
Charts
The geographic coordinates are at the airport reference point
(ARP) shown as a circle with a +. The letter K now prefaces every
three-letter airport designator. Airport elevation is the highest
useable runway surface. Frequencies are listed as used for arrival.
Airport diagram is drawn to scale with magnetic bearing below
runway number at end of runway. Takeoff minimums, visual reference
and climb gradient is given by aircraft categories. Departure
procedures may be either for IFR or Obstacles.
…53,000 changes in Jepp charts every week;.
… Lower left corner is "Changes" Of the three
options will be 'reissue", 'see other side', 'Chart re-indexed',
or a specification as to the change.
…All chart changes are recorded and the last change is printed
on the lower left margin vertically.
…The plan view is the largest area displayed below the briefing
strip. The scale of the view is along the left side. This scale
is normally one inch to five miles but may be 7.5. The symbols
are the same as as on the en route charts. The inbound course
is a bold line. Approach plate frequencies are on the briefing
strip as well as ovals on the plan view. Dark lines can be used
as transitions while light lines cannot. A dark holding patter
indicates it is a part of the procedure.
…Profile not to scale
…Markers showed as shaded areas
…Markers have altitudes for the approach
…Compare altritude at marker to TCH on chart
…Marker altitudes are minimums unless designated by mandatory,
maximum, or recommended
…Final approach is from Maltese cross except in the ILS which
is from intercept
…Precision FAF is where glide slope intercept altitude meets
glide slope.
…Touchdown elevation is highest point of first 2300 feet
of runway
…Profile distances can be confusing. FAA leaning toward
all DME rather than time.
--If takeoff minimums are specified as ceiling and visibility
both must be reported to be valid.
--STD (standard) on plates means 5000RVR or one mile visibility
--Any restrictions in the far right box of takeoff/obstacle applies
to all categories.
--Read the fine print on the plate.
--Follow the procedure precisely as charted
--Know the minimums
--Airports with capital letters have IFR approaches.(Jepp)
--Airports in lower case letters do not have IFR approaches. (Jepp)
IFR RNAV Chart
…No more charts with GPS in title. RNAV used instead.
…Extreme cold conditions cause inaccurate altimeter. See
Chart warning on briefing strip.
…TAA (Terminal Arrival Area) allow arrival from any
direction without course reversal.
…UNAYY system chart has minimum safe altitudes in several
quadrants.
…GLS is the GNSS or global navigation landing system using
WAAS with 200' and half-mile minimums.
…LNAV/VNAV (lateral and vertical) uses special altimeter
GPS charts are now named RNAV because the FAA standard will put all forms of RNAV on one chart. the minimums for different systems will be different. LNAV minimums apply to IFR certified GPS. Approach plates are designed to allow pilot nav operations. This makes the load on ATC lighter.
…Existing GPS procedures will be updated but new
GPS procedures will be called RNAV.
…Terminal Arrival Areas (TAA) will now give altitude and
course information from any direction for an approach.
…lfThe purpose of the TAA program is to eliminate any need
for a course reversal of any kind.
…TAA altitudes can be used instead of the previous MSAs.
The TAAs can be flown as approach altitudes whereas MSAs were
emergency altitudes only.
…The WAAS system will give 200' minimums with 1/2 mile visibility
Using
ATC in Emergencies
Complete aircraft engine failures is relatively rare because
of simplicity, duality and strength. Of all aircraft components
the pilot is most likely to initiate a flight failure. The cheapest
engine failure insurance you can get is the best possible maintenance.
Even so, engines can be expected to give some warning. All flying
accidents could be reduced by 80% were pilots to use common sense
and a conservative approach to flying. It has been recently disclosed
that there is a 'risk-gene' that drives certain personalities
to take chances. Fuel, altitude and the 180 add reserve to the
so-called critical margin of safety.
The airport that is five nautical miles distant may be reachable in a failed-motor aircraft but it is likely that the reaching may not provide enough margin to make a landing. It is far better to use your 2-miles per 1000 feet to select a closer landing place that will allow a more normal positioning for landing. A normal landing attitude at the lowest possible airspeed at ground contact is the most survivable accident you can ever have.
In an emergency it is far better to tell ATC about your circumstances
and what you are going to
do. Only if you lack local area knowledge should you ask for
directional help.
The entrance of weather into the equation requires the pilot to start reading in-between the lines of what is happening over the radio. Night and a non-precision approach compounds the hazards of weather.
Some situations are such that very vital information is casually passed that have significance not brought to the attention of the pilot. ATC may change runways, turn up lights, remark on missed approaches and approve holding without equating these as red-flag warnings to a particular aircraft or pilot. With ATC emphasis a pilot may ask for an alternate missed, a vector for holding, or an update on existing visibility conditions. This visibility is important because if a visibility change has occurred since the pilot has passed the FAF he might wish to abort the approach. The failure to pass on information related to rapidly changing weather is hazardous to flight safety.
Letters
for Words
MNPA Minimum navigation performance airspace
RVSM Reduced vertical separation minimums airspace
AMASS Airport Movement and Safety System
MEA assures obstacle clearance and radio reception.
MOCA Obstruction clearance off airway but radio reception 22
miles. (Jeppesen has a T)
MORA - Jepp only minimum off-route obstacle clearance within
1- miles.
MCA - Minimum crossing altitude with associated Minimum Enroute
Altitude change to follow.
MRA - Minimum reception altitude capable of identifying an intersection
or allowing navigation.
MAA - Maximum authorized altitude because of amount of traffic
on airway.
MSA - Minimum sector altitude is pie chart depiction of safe
obstacle clearing altitudes.
Transition
Level
The transition level is the lowest flight level above the
transition altitude. The transition level is only used when descending,
and must be picked up from ATIS or Tower before landing. The
transition level is where the altimeter setting is changed from
STD to QNH. The layer between the transition altitude and the
transition level is called transition layer. It is somewhere
between 0 and 500' thick, and no level flight is allowed there.
Reason is that both QNH and STD references are used here.
Terminator
Legs on Charts
--An obstacle clearance rate of climb is based on crossing
the threshold at 35 feet, maintaining runway heading to 400 feet.
Before turning and maintaining a minimum climb rate of 200 feet
per minute or as specified thereafter.
--A 'VA leg" is a vector on a heading to a specific altitude.
--An 'FD leg' departure can terminate on a DME arc at a specific
altitude as a 'fly-over fix'.
--A fix may be a 'fly-by fix' or a fly-over fix.
--A VI leg is a vector to an interception
--Letter x on a DP (Departure procedure) chart is a turn point.
--A TF 'track to fix' the x 'turning point' is a fly-by
--Computer based, the above will lead the intercepts while not
allowed in hand flying.
--In a two pilot cockpit, one pilot should stay with ground based
navaids as insurance.
--Over reliance on automation in high-workload situations precipitates
accidents.
--Proficiency in computer flying requires considerable experience.
--Complacency is the greatest danger to experienced pilots.
--Changing a pre-planned decision is one of the most difficult
things to do as a pilot.
--Computer flight planning can cause a lack of situational awareness.
--The challenge of computerized flying is knowing when to say
when.
New Way
IFR
--Basic problem of IFR is to know where you are and how to
get where you are going.
--GPS makes the distinction between precision and non-precision
invalid.
--GPS is a navigator using an array of fixes.
--By selecting a desired track to a fix, you are effectively
flying a radial.
--There is no need to find the identifier for the fix
--The FMS (flight management system) must know where you are
by using raw data from available sources.
--The pilot must know where he is going and by what route while
keeping the needle centered.
--Pilots and Instructors must be more accepting of the potential
of the present.
Navigational
Databases
--Some procedures as radar vectors cannot be programmed into
data bases.
--Procedures may not be stored because of inadequate storage.
--Step-down fixes between FAF and MAP are not in the databases.
--The database vertical angle may not be displayed by the system.
--Route legs must be geographic point to geographic point to
be displayed.
--All legs of a procedure must be flown as shown on paper, regardless
of RNAV display.
--All procedures are not in all databases. You must have the
paper.
--Fly IFR procedures as charted
--Data base may not have departure procedure, STAR or approach
--Data base may not have all leg or segment of procedure
--Confirm waypoint or navaid retrieved is the one you want.
--GPS, FMS or lmap displays do not take the place of paper charts.
--FAA requires that you use no hand-entered fixes.
--You are required to have on 'paper' any route or fix used with
GPS.
--The database is information; software lets you find and use
the information.
--GPS database is at three levels:
--1. The highest level is the inclusion of all data needed for
the whole flight planned route.
--2. The next level is all the route structure such as DPs, STARs
and approaches.
--3. The last level is all the navaids and fixes expressed in
longitude and latitude on the surface.
STARS
--STandard Arrival RouteS are STARS
--A STAR is a method of providing tracking and IFR separation
for arrival aircraft
--A STAR allows arrivals not to affect enroute or departing IFR
traffic
--A STAR reduces required radio time
--A STAR may affect spacing, speed, diversions or congestion.
It does not always work well.
--A glitch in the STAR can cause the system to effectively fail
--Getting the airport ATIS early will help you know what STAR
to expect.
--STARS often have a series of crossing altitudes that vary with
your aircraft capability
--STARS often have a series of fixes, headings, and vectors that
are going away from your destination
--STAR charts are not drawn to scale
--Read all STAR notes carefully
--Don't go into a busy airport without your STAR chart
--You can file a plan with "No DPs No STARs in remarks of
your plan.
Fixes:
--The VOR can have up to fifteen different identifying elements
that are constant in the database.
--An airway fix has at least five identifying elements in the
database.
--Every geographic location, worldwide, has a unique five-letter
identification code.
--Airways have eight identifying elements the identifier, altitudes,
courses, distances, revision date and a sequence listing on the
route.
--Airway numbers go from south to north and from west to east.
Altitude
Database
Most systems do not have airway altitudes.
Not in database
---Minimum descent altitude (MDA)
---Decision altitude
---Minimum obstruction clearance
---Minimum reception
---Minimum safe
---Minimum sector
---Minimum crossing
ATC's
Variables
--Ceilings and Visibilities
--Coupled approaches have interception two miles outside (approach
gate) which is one mile outside OM.
--Interception of glide slope is from below.
--Localizer intercept at 20-degrees inside of two miles of OM
and at 30-degrees outside two miles of OM
--Ceilings below 800' and visibility less than 2 miles means
ATC Tower must keep ILS critical area clear.
--Ceiling 300' above MVA/MIA and 3 mile visibility means ATC
may vector for visual approach.
--Advise ATC when you are making a coupled approach
Be
Ready for IFR Changes
Overall IFR procedures are 90-percent canned and always the
same. Not necessarily so in busy corridors. ATC may want to move
you out of the way of the big boys. I often find it expedient
to volunteer first to
ease things further on. An unexpected increase in activity requires
that you have enough reserve faculties
to handle the unexpected. It's not just the system it's the accumulation
of distractions required when you play catch-up.
Anticipatory planning can shortstop many distractions. Biggest
item is to have quickly available instrument covers. You will
never appreciate how necessary they are until you have a serious
need for them. The preflight is the best place to take care of
common distractions such as zero airspeed because the pitot heat
was not confirmed prior to takeoff. Keep all the charts for the
departure and arrival airport approaches together and arranged
according to anticipated use. Use your passengers as much as
necessary such as keeping the most flight experienced next to
you.
Base your approach selection on the one that offers the most
direct route. Get your IFR approaches over with before dark.
A proper preflight has prepared for the least likely equipment
failure.
What is IFR?
--Begins with "Cleared to…"
--Forms of clearance limits, ground limits, clearance delivery route limits,
takeoff limits, radio failure limits, vector limits, initial approach fix
limits, airport ETA limits.
--FAA facilities think and act differently. Flex as required.
IFR after 9/11
--Being IFR is no longer the violation proof system of yesteryear.
--Your weather briefing is no longer more important than protecting yourself
from ATC mistakes.
–You are more likely to be guided into a TFR/FRZ/TFR by ATC than by any
other means.
--The FAR emergency procedures of yesteryear are no longer overriding.
--The clearances no longer are no longer to be relied upon to keep you
inviolate.
--As the PIC you are more likely to be held accountable than the controller.
--You are best off to refuse any clearance, vector, or directive that will fly
you into restricted airspace.
--Notams are not as reliable or accurate as they should be.
--The system no longer works as well as the FAA wants it to.
–Get a full briefing from the FSS so the recording will serve as a
protective cover for you flight.
–Make last minute check to FSS prior to departure from every leg of a
flight.
--Be in radio contact with ATC at all times.
--Make sure your GPS has a current database
--Have current charts, plates, and frequencies.
–Past reliance on ATC for traffic avoidance is no longer recommended.
Instrument Technology Origins
I just realized some historical facts related to my own history. My
first instrument simulations were in 1945 on Tinian Island using a Link Trainer
and doing the radio range into McCellan AFB at Sacramento. I did this for many
hours while waiting for a ship home after the war. In the last few months of the
war I was mechanic/operator of a bombardment simulator that incorporated what we
now know as DME and RNAV. The DME was actually first used as the slant range
distance to a radar bombing target and distance was measured to determine the
bomb release point. The RNAV part was the ability of the equipment to take the
distance and azimuth of a radar visible lake or shoreline point and put it into
the equipment as an offset for an inland target area. It is similar to moving
VORs to make a new airway. It took G.A. fifty years to get it into our planes.
Now You're Playing in my
Backyard
As ATC evolved in Northern California ZOA (Oakland Center) had remote
transmitters every seventeen miles from the Oregon border to half-way across
Nevada, to Bakersfield and half way to Hawaii. via wind surfers Center is
Located in Fremont not far from Oakland. The ZOA realm was based mostly on
altitude but not entirely so.
As the system grew below the center's airspace lower altitudes were given to
airports having radar or even groups of airports. Bay Approach covered the SF
area. Stockton, Sacramento, Fresno Bakersfield, and Monterey all had their own
Approach Control and individual names.
Well before 9/11 all of these were in the process of being combined and
renamed into one facility. For a period the combination was called Sierra
Approach but now is called NorCal Approach in a modern facility near
Sacramento. But some areas underlying Center never had their own Approach
Control and were not included into NorCal. It is this blending that is causing
the confusion for those who did not grow up with the changes as they occurred.
Tower En route Control grew like Topsey with adjacent controls having aircraft
not needing to climb to Center altitudes but passing beneath its altitudes
from one to another. Where these Approach controls existed they developed a
system called Tower En route.
It is possible to taxi out at Concord, CA and get an IFR flight plan to
Bakersfield just by calling ground and in the process of getting taxiing
instructions request a Tower En Route to Bakersfield or nearly any other major
airport in Northern California. Your clearance will be available to you by the
time you finish your run-up. It's that simple. But, not always in all
directions.
The cities and airports of Napa and Santa Rosa lie just north of the Bay Area.
From Concord you can 'file' Tower En Route to Napa and Santa Rosa. Not to
Ukiah but… In the process you will leave NorCal and be handed over to
Oakland Center on 127.8. But you can.t leave those airports IFR except by
filing a regular FSS flight plan. Dumb, stupid and inefficient. But every FAA
facility must 'protect' its territory and domain.
From Napa and Santa Rosa, on an IFR day you either file or get out on a SVFR
clearance to where you can get a Pop Up IFR clearance that gets you into the
Tower En Route system from NorCal on 120.9 or from Travis AFB on 119.9 I have
done all of these over the years.
In flying to Southern California IFR, I have found it easier to quickly get a
Tower En Route from Concord Ground to Bakersfield or even San Jose and then
just amend it along the way to my SoCal destination. This allows you to slip
underneath the ZOA airspace without waiting for a time slot in the entire IFR
route system.
Now you know the R-R-R-e-S-S-TT of the story.
References:
http://tfr.faa.gov/TFR/jsp/list.jsp
http://airspace.blm.gov
Return to WhittSflying
Return to IFR
Contents
Continued on 7.29 IFR
Systems Equipment