Page2.91 (6,352)
PTS
Emergency and Night;
Return to whittsflying Home Page
Contents
Notes;
A. Task:
EMERGENCY
DESCENT; ...Emergency
Descents; ...Emergency Addendum; ...Emergency
Descent Differences; ...B. Task: EMERGENCY
APPROACH AND LANDING;
...C. Task: SYSTEMS
AND EQUIPMENT
MALFUNCTIONS; ...D. Task: EMERGENCY
EQUIPMENT AND SURVIVAL GEAR;
...A. Task: NIGHT PREPARATION;
...B. Task: NIGHT FLIGHT;
...A. Task:
AFTER LANDING;
...B Task: PARKING AND SECURING;
Least familiar FARs;
Landing
Light;
Logging Time;
Making the PIC Decision at Night;
When Is Night; ...When
It Is Night;
Emergency Training;
... Saving Your Life Once Is Enough;
To Land Is Your Only Option;
...Night Flying Afterthoughts; ...An
Account of a Night Emergency; ...Night
Fright; ...Night Flights; ... FARs;
...Equipment; ...Preparation;
...
Notes
No 'fast hands' is good advice in an aircraft emergency.
Don't just do something, sit there.
Air Force: Wind the clock.
X. AREA OF OPERATION - EMERGENCY OPERATIONS
Task:
EMERGENCY
DESCENT
REFERENCES: AC 61-21, operating handbook, flight manual
EMERGENCY DESCENT
Reasons for an emergency descent. Leave 3000 feet for 1500 feet
in power dive as though having engine or cockpit fire. Compare
with power off nose high slip to lose altitude.
P 1. Knows and can discuss factors of urgency, aircraft limits,
and techniques relevant to both emergency descent and survival.
P 2. Recognizes the urgency of an emergency descent.
P 3. Establishes the recommended emergency descent configuration
and airspeed, and maintains that airspeed, + 5 knots.
P 4. Demonstrates orientation, division of attention and, proper
planning. No descents below 1500' or above Vne
P 5. follows the appropriate emergency checklist.
EX The nature of the emergency helps decide the best descent
procedure. A major cockpit or fuel fire would require a Vne descent.
An engine fire could be kept away from the cockpit by a nose
high, power-off, slipping descent. A descent through an overcast
of unknown base might require slowing to Vmc with power on to
control the descent and hands-off rudder flying for heading.
A black hole situation would use a similar descent where the
surface was unknown. A descent through a hole in an overcast
could be made with full flaps and power off in a descending spiral
with flap removal below the bases to expedite the descent. There
are probably more.
To get down quickly you must reduce power and create as much
drag as possible. The emergency descent is found under Task A
of Emergency Operations in the private pilot PTS guide. Unfortunately,
most light aircraft POHs do not contain information on emergency
descents.
There are several emergency descent procedures that can affect
the technique selected. An engine fire in a fabric aircraft would
give the nose-high slip as a means of keeping the fire from the
fabric. If you were directly over a good landing site then a
high-drag descending spiral would be best. I have tried descents
with and without flaps and find that there is little or no difference
in the descent times per on-thousand feet. Kershner suggests
a spin down to 1000' as a good option.
In no case should you exceed the V-speeds during the flight test.
Examiners expect the pilot to put the aircraft into a high drag
configuration and initiate a maxim rate of descent close to but
not exceeding any critical speed. Maximum G-load on flaps is 2-Gs.
The fact is that any extended emergency descent poises an engine-damaging
problem due to shock cooling. Explain to the examiner that you
will terminate the maneuver after you have completed any POH
prescribed procedures and established a stabilized descent. When
you are faced with the need for an emergency descent you have
several options that give nearly the same rate of descent for
the required 1500' altitude loss.
Procedure #1
Carburetor Heat, power off or on and descend at structural cruise
speed (where the yellow and green meet). Descent should level
off after losing 1500' and no descent below 3000'. This descent
is at a relatively high speed and covers considerable distance.
On arrival at the 1500' descent point you are going so fast that
even more distance (read time) will be required for any landing.
This is not the descent you would use to get below a cloud deck.
It is visually very difficult to tell your relationship to clouds.
Clouds are all of indeterminate size and distance you are quite
likely to reach the clouds before getting below them.
Procedure # 2
Carburetor heat, power off, at white arc put in full flaps and
descend at top of the white arc. This descent will get you down
in the same amount of time as #1 but has the advantage of covering
less distance (where distance is not a factor) and your lower
speed will allow rapid deceleration to a landing speed.
Procedure # 3
Carburetor heat, power off, enter a full slip into your best
estimate as to wind direction. Depending on the wind velocity
the descent can be anywhere from straight down to an angle approaching
that with full flaps. Not to demonstrated with flaps but will
be useful information in a true emergency.
Procedure # 4
Carburetor heat, power off, at white arc put in full flaps while
initiation a turn of not over 45^ while maintaining airspeed
at the top of the white arc.
Emergency Descents (From FAA text)
An emergency descent is a maneuver for descending as rapidly
as possible to a lower altitude or to the ground for an emergency
landing. The need for this maneuver may result from an uncontrollable
fire, a sudden loss of cabin pressurization, or any other situation
demanding an immediate and rapid descent. The objective is to
descend the airplane as soon and as rapidly as possible, within
the structural limitations of the airplane.
Simulated emergency descents should be made in a turn to check
for other air traffic below and to look around
for a possible emergency landing area. A radio call announcing
descent intentions may be appropriate to alert other aircraft
in the area. When initiating the descent, a bank of approximately
30 to 45-degrees should be established to maintain positive
load factors ("G" forces) on the airplane.
Emergency descent training should be performed as recommended
by the manufacturer, including the configuration and airspeeds.
Except when prohibited by the manufacturer, the power should
be reduced to idle, and the propeller control (if equipped) should
be placed in the low pitch (or high revolutions per minute (RPM))
position. This will allow the propeller to act as an aerodynamic
brake to help prevent an excessive airspeed buildup during the
descent. The landing gear and flaps should be extended as recommended
by the manufacturer. This will provide maximum drag so that the
descent can be made as rapidly as possible, without excessive
airspeed. The pilot should not allow the airplane's airspeed
to pass the never exceed speed (VNE), the maximum gear extended
speed (VLE), or the maximum flap extended speed (VFE), as applicable.
In the case of an engine fire, a high airspeed descent could
blow out the fire. However, the weakening of the airplane structure
is a major concern and descent at low airspeed would place less
stress on the airplane. If the descent is conducted in turbulent
conditions, the pilot must also comply with the maneuvering speed
(VA) limitations. The descent should be made at the maximum allowable
airspeed consistent with the procedure used. This will provide
increased drag and therefore the loss of altitude as quickly
as possible. The recovery from an emergency descent should be
initiated at a high enough altitude to ensure a safe recovery
back to level flight or a precautionary landing.
When the descent is established and stabilized during training
and practice, the descent should be terminated. In airplanes
with piston engines, prolonged practice of emergency descents
should be avoided to prevent excessive cooling of the engine
cylinders.
Emergency
Addendum
There is good reason for those who advocate making training
takeoff climb-outs at Vx. Vx will get you high while
relatively close to the runway. Your return to the runway turn
is a more viable option than were you to climb-out at Vy. In
any event you do not want to waste of your four seconds thinking
about what to do. Get the nose down and on the way down make
your decision. Straight ahead is historically the best survival way. Getting into the 45-degree turn into any wind will be the
most practical way to get around with the nose down. The four-seconds
is the mathematical time it takes a climbing C-172 to reach stall
speed once the engine fails.
In any emergency, make what you do as near normal as you can.
Don't do anything new or strange. The familiar will make things
easy. In a controlled situation don't ask. Tell the facility
what you are planning and going to do. By declaring an emergency
you have gained the right to do what it takes to make the safest
operation possible.
Emergency
Descent Differences
Now required by the PTS, the emergency descent used is specific
to the type of emergency. A structural problem
requires a different descent than an engine fire, a cockpit fire
a different descent from an engine fire and so on. At altitude
any descent is going to take several minutes. It behooves the
instructor to show the student several modes of descent.
I have timed no-flap high powered speed descents as might be
used to blow out flames with full flap power off descents for
1500' land have found that the time involved are within seconds
of each other. My leaning is toward the use of flaps since it
reduces the time and distance required for landing and exiting.
Both of these descents can exceed 2000 fpm if performed in a
steep bank. If vibration or structure noises get worse in the
descent, slow your rate and create as much drag as you can to
increase the rate of descent without an increase in airspeed.
Task:
EMERGENCY APPROACH AND LANDING
1. REFERENCES: AC 61-21A, Airplane handbook and Flight Manual
EMERGENCY APPROACH AND LANDING PROCEDURES
Best glide speed + 10 knots.
P 1. Knows and discusses which descent, approach, and landing
is appropriate to the situation.
P 2. Establishes and maintains the recommended best-glide attitude,
configuration, and airspeed, + 10 knots.
P 3. Selects a suitable emergency landing area within gliding
distance.
P 4. Selects best option for field, speed + 10 knots, flies arrival
pattern with respect to terrain and wind.
P 5. Contingency options opened and selected, seeks cause of
problem, flaps only when field is certain.
P 6. Maintains positive control of the airplane at all times.
P 7. Follows the appropriate emergency checklist.
EX Able to explain emergency sequence in a variety of possible
situations. Be ready to demonstrate emergency process from start
up to tiedown.
For single-engine certificates, simulated emergency approaches
and landings, as well as system and equipment malfunctions are
specified items. Judgment is most evident when a flight doesn't
proceed as planned. Good judgment during aircraft operations
that are critical to flight safety must be tested and demonstrated.
An example of a simulated engine failure test of judgment often
occurs during low level ground reference maneuvers but can occur
over an airport. The ability to determine relationships and alternatives
and then make reasonable decisions is judgment. The ability to
adjust one's actions to meet the surprises that come in the PTS
and flying is essential. The student /instructor combination
must give opportunity to develop this judgment.
Situations
--Because throttle has been misused to prime the engine the carburetor
overflows. When started the exhaust sets fire to the overflow.
Options:
1. If the engine has not started, continue to crank the engine
with the mixture out. This will suck much of the fire into the
exhaust, and use up fuel in the system. If this doesn't work,
bail out and call authorities. Use radio?
2. If engine is running, pull mixture and apply full throttle.
Use radio to call authorities.
-- At application of full power, seat slides back, door opens,
or a loud bang occurs.
Options:
1. Pull power and clear runway
.
--Shortly after lift off, seat slides back, door opens or a loud
bang occurs.
Options:
1. Power off and land on remaining runway.
2. Power as needed to maintain control. Radio.
Altitude needed to safely land. May be off airport.
During climb out at best rate, the engine fails
.
Options:
1. Land off airport within 30 degree of heading
2. If altitude permits (800' or more) make steep turn to airport.
240 degree turn required to make it back to departure runway.
During climb out, the cockpit fills with smoke.
Options:
1. If electrical, turn off master. Return for landing.
2. If petroleum, pull mixture, forward nose high slip to landing.
Flaps if possible.
3. In event of fire, get on the ground.
. Engine failure at altitude
Options:
1. CHECKLIST
2. An imminent stall will stop the propeller from windmilling
and improve the glide ratio. The starter can be used to level
the prop and minimize damage.
3. If descent is being made against the wind, add 1/3 of the
wind velocity for best penetration glide.
4. If descent is being made with the wind, reduce best glide
speed slightly.
--Fuel gauge on empty, lost
.
Options:
1. Land. Note: Don't fly below 1/4 tanks. The gas gauge is the
least accurate instrument on the aircraft. Factors such as load,
winds, and carburation can affect fuel flow.
--Lost-possibly flew off the edge of the sectional.
Options:
1. CCCC Climb, communicate, confess, comply. Note: Don't delay.
Get on the radio and indicate that someone has misplaced your
destination. A common fault is to descend in the belief that
something will appear. Nothing so interferes with mental functioning
as being lost or misplaced.
--Partial engine failure
.
Options:
1. Your first rule is to maintain positive aircraft control as
you refer to your printed checklist. Check the critical items
so that in an actual failure you will deal with the essentials
first.
2. Smoothness and airspeed control in obtaining and maintaining
the best glide airspeed and configuration is essential. Failure
to maintain just the best glide speed will prevent accurate decisions
related to gliding distance and touchdown. Be sure to consider
factors as altitude, wind, terrain, obstructions in your planning.
If you have made a poor choice of an emergency landing area,
don't hesitate to make only one new choice.
--Engine failure with full flaps
Options:
1. Get the flaps up while applying enough back yoke pressure
to maintain the best glide speed. Best power off glide speed
is usually midway between Vx and Vy. (Check) Trim down four turns
from full flap descent at 60 knots and 1500 rpm.
Task:
SYSTEMS
AND EQUIPMENT MALFUNCTIONS
REFERENCES: AC 61-21, operating handbook, flight manual
SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMENT MALFUNCTIONS
Partial or complete power loss, engine roughness or overheat,
carburetor or induction icing, loss of oil pressure, fuel starvation,
electrical system malfunction, flight instrument malfunction,
landing gear or flap malfunction, inoperative trim, open door
or window, icing, smoke and fire in cabin, smoke and fire in
engine compartment, any other emergency, follows prescribed checklist.
P 1. Knows and discusses the systems, malfunctions, and symptoms
appropriate to the aircraft used. You are expected to be able
to draw all the systems given in the POH.
P 2. Takes action for simulated emergencies, such as--
a. degrees of power loss
b. engine roughness or high temperature
c. carburetor or induction ice
d. low oil pressure
e. fuel starvation
f. electrical system problem
g. instrument malfunction
h. gear or flap problem
i. inoperative trim
j. open door or window
k. structural ice
l. any smoke or fire
m. other emergency
P 3. follows the appropriate emergency checklist.
The examiner is not PIC during the flight test. The examiner
test of emergency procedures should be discussed with the applicant
before entering the aircraft. Components should only be disabled
by mutual agreement.
--Partial power loss.
Options
Possible causes: Magneto position, Carb Heat position or door,
mixture position, fuel system problem, shorted spark plug, air
filter plugged, and many more.
--Rough running engine or overheat
Options
Possible causes: Carburetor ice, fouled or shorted plugs, magneto
short or lead, fuel system, etc.
Never kill a running engine. Use what power you have to get to
the nearest landing area. Descent cools, rich cools.
--Structural icing
Options
Do a 180 at first sign. Gain altitude for as long as possible
using the fastest speed possible. No flaps and do not slow down
in the air. Land hot. the ice on the tailplane is the most dangerous.
--Flight instrument failure
Options
Cover face of failed instrument(s). Proceed to destination. For
pitot you can apply pitot heat. For altimeter and airspeed you
can break face of VSI or use alternate air. Knowing where trim
is set and power setting should allow you to proceed to a safe
landing if you have learned how to establish a stabilized approach.
--Carburetor or induction icing
Symptom: rough engine caused by ice blockage of air intake or
butterfly venturi.
Options: Cure:
Full Carb Heat. Will cause additional power loss and then a rise
as ice melts. Carb Heat off will restore normal power. A climb
attitude will increase engine heat. Use magnetos to make engine
backfire. May clear ice. Try to climb, lean the mixture
.
--Loss of oil pressure
Symptom: Gauge, high oil temperature.
Options:
If oil temperature is normal it may be gauge. Make precautionary
landing. If oil temperature is high, reduce to minimum power
and get on ground. Don't try to make the next airport. A partial
power landing is always a better option than a fire or dead engine.
Reduce power, check oil temperature for rise that indicates loss
of oil, get into landing area and down before engine quits
--Fuel starvation
Cause: Usually pilot error or contamination.
Option: Cure:
Get on the ground if you have any power at all. Be sure to get
the power off for landing. Switch tanks, change fuel selector,
check mixture movement, rock the wings. Once you are committed
to landing it is better to forgo any effort to get engine running.
A sudden full power engine just prior to touchdown is very dangerous
and unlikely to continue. Many accidents have been caused by
a sudden resumption of power just as the plane hits the ground.
Intermittent engine operation will cease at the worst possible
time.
--Engine compartment fire.
Options
Shut off fuel, pull mixture, full power to use fuel in system.
CHECKLIST Nose high slip to landing as fast as possible. Another
option is to dive vertically in an effort to blow out the fire.
--Electrical system malfunction
Options
If fire, kill master. CHECKLIST Inoperative equipment check fuse/
breaker system. If alternator, try to reset, reduce electric
load and proceed to nearest airport. Check switches and amp meter
readings. Initially, shut off the master. Then turn off all electrical
equipment. Turn on master switch check for operation and problem.
Turn on one electrical element at a time and check for problem.
Try to locate and isolate problem. If problem continues shut
off master and proceed to destination using NORDO procedures
for IFR or VFR no radio procedures.
--Gear or flap malfunction.
Options
Undo what you did, first. Aircraft will be controllable if flap
positions are equalized. Landing gear up need not be an accident.
If flaps are stuck in position, trim for best performance and
proceed for landing. If flaps are asymmetric, get them up if
possible.
Maintain best control and get to ground in best landing configuration.
CHECKLIST. Gear, fly to nearest large airport and use your radio
.
--Door opening in flight
Options
This will not affect flight or operation except for noise. If
you do not know how to close the door in the air, don't try.
Land at nearest airport. Not an emergency. Close the window.
It is possible to close door while in the air. For hard to close
door, best option is to land and close it.
--Trim Inoperative
Options
An inoperative trim in neutral position just makes flying more
difficult but constitutes no danger. In any other position it
is best to get the plane on the ground at reduced power to reduce
control pressures and get the trim repaired.
Flying an out of trim aircraft is not pleasant but it is possible.
Shifting some weight might help relive pressure. Work with the
pressure until you can get on the ground. Not an emergency.
--Vacuum Failure
Options
Vacuum Gauge at zero. Heading indicator begins to spin. Attitude
indicator stops in one position. May be level or cocked.
--Other malfunctions
Loss of throttle control:
Control what ever engine power you have by magneto switch.
Stuck elevator movement
Use trim and power combination for control
Stuck rudder
Use doors for rudder control
No brakes
Full flaps, yoke back, ground loop
D. Task:
EMERGENCY
EQUIPMENT AND SURVIVAL GEAR
REFERENCES: AC 61-21; operating handbook, flight manual
EMERGENCY EQUIPMENT AND SURVIVAL GEAR
Emergency locator transmitter, battery life, on/off/arm positions,
required inspections, battery changes, how to activate after
emergency landing.
P 1. Knows survival gear and equipment available in aircraft
a. location on/in aircraft
b. operation and use
c. required servicing
d. safe storage
e. gear according to climate and topography
P 2. Follows the appropriate emergency checklist.
The ELT must be replaced as placarded on it by date of 1/2 battery
life followed by A&Ps signature. It must have aircraft logbook
entries as to date of installation and A&Ps signature. Since
6-21-94 ELT inspection required annually as part of annual inspection.
It must be replace if activated for one hour. Data, dates and
location required information for PTS. (Flight test). Test of
ELT is limited to three audio sweeps during the first five minutes
of any hour. ELTs in storage must have battery removed.
The aircraft shutdown checklist includes putting 121.5 on the
com radio prior to turning it off. This ten seconds is used to
save the time and money that would be wasted if an Emergency
Locator Transmitter (ELT) false alarm is pursued by the U. S.
Air Force Rescue Coordination Center (AFRCC) now located on the
East Coast.
ELT Update
Only second generation ELTs (TSO-C91a) can be installed after
6-21-95
Battery expiration dates on ELT and maintenance record
New inertia switch will not activate on hard landings.
Can interface with Loran and GPS
Next generation is:
Emergency Position Indicator Radio Beacons (EPIRB's)
Personal Locator Beacon (PLB's)
406.025 MHz ELT's
System can receive and download information such as position
and identification in one satellite pass.
Crash Survival
#1 survival item is to let a responsible person know where you
are going, your route, and ETA. Insurance is to make contact
after arrival. If you are not found quickly, you are not likely
to be found at all. Survival items that are nice to have, short-term
and essential for longer are:
Flashlight, digging tool, foul-weather gear, blankets, food,
water, matches and candles. A real plus would be a portable GPS,
a handheld radio, or a cellular phone. Dehydration is the worst
threat usually facing a downed pilot.
Winter clothing:
Combine high-tech and traditional materials. It is easier to
keep warm by wearing multiple layers. Inner lawyer should not
absorb moisture and wick it away from the body. 1/4 if body heat
leaves via the head. Waterproof headgear may be the most important
single survival item.
Pilots are optimists that believe bad things happen to other
people. They believe that flying is so safe that there is no
need to be prepared for catastrophe. Before leaving home you
should prepare the 'what if' options. Whenever you go flying
you should be dressed to walk home. You should have required
items within cockpit reach. You should stay with aircraft and
survive until conditions allow foraging. Short-term rescue is
usually within a day. The greatest danger is exposure to conditions
causing hypothermia. The right condition of wind, temperature,
and moisture can expose anyone to hypothermia. The body loses
heat most rapidly when wet.
Making your position visible can help rescue. Make a clearing,
start a fire, and make large SOSs. Use common sense, have confidence
in yourself and be patient. Prior planning, preparedness, practice
and training will enable you to make the best decision possible.
XI. AREA OF OPERATION - NIGHT OPERATIONS
Task:
NIGHT PREPARATION
REFERENCES: AC 61-21, AC 61-23, AC 67-2, operating handbook,
flight manual
NIGHT PREPARATION
To be discussed as part of oral, airport lighting, illusions,
visual acuity and night physiology, chart-reading techniques,
effect of age.
EX Discuss what you know about:
1. Physiological aspects of illusions, health, visual acuity.
2. Airport lighting systems and controlled lighting.
3. Aircraft light systems
4. Personal lights
5. Night pilotage, navigation, chart reading
6. Night precautions and emergency options
Carry several flashlights. Physiologically, night vision ability
decreases with age, altitudes above 3000' have significant influence.
Mountain flying is quite different from urban area flying. You
should either do a great deal of night flying or none. Night
flight eliminates 90% of your emergency landing options. Night
flight constitutes only 4% of General Aviation flight time by
25% of the accidents.
Know the lighting systems in use at various airports. Be aware
of how to obtain "pilot controlled" lighting and lighting
aids not in use at controlled airports. Know how to obtain ATC/FSS/RADAR
assistance in the event of being lost or disoriented. Be able
to determine airport entry and pattern by interpreting ground
aids.
The landing light is a useful identification aid at night. You
may be requested to flash your light for identification. However,
when landing, if you can see the light beam ahead while coming
in for a landing you would be well advised to turn it off. Under
these circumstances the landing light can create an illusion
which results in a far too high flare. In any event you should
always practice using the landing light every other time to maintain
no light proficiency.
Blindfold Training
Just sitting in the airplane can be time well spent. You want
to be able to touch every switch, control, instrument, and circuit
breaker with your eyes closed. By knowing where the controls,
switches and knobs are, you won't have to divert your attention
to find them. You are minimizing the distractions that cause
IFR vertigo. By using mental imagery it is possible to improve
your flying performance.
Task:
NIGHT FLIGHT
REFERENCES: AC 61-21, AC 67-2, AIM, operating handbook, and flight
manual
NIGHT FLIGHT
Preflight, aircraft lighting systems, and checklists to be covered
as part of the oral.
P 1. Exhibits knowledge of the elements related to night flight.
Since it is doubtful that a demonstration will be required, be
prepared to review your past night flying experience.
P 2. Inspects the interior and exterior of the airplane with
emphasis on those items essential for night flight. Preflight
inspection for night essentials
P 3. Taxies and accomplishes the before takeoff check adhering
to good operating practice for night conditions. Night taxiing
procedures and night operating practices
P 4. Performs takeoffs and climbs with emphasis on visual references.
Visual references used in night flight
P 5. Navigates and maintains orientation under VFR conditions.
P 6. Approaches, lands, and taxies, adhering to good operating
practices for night conditions.
P 7. Completes the appropriate checklists.
EX Be prepared to discuss flight factors of night flying as different
from day. This includes equipment, navigation, lighting, physiology,
weather, terrain, and airport operations.
Be aware of these differences. Preflight to include interior
and exterior lighting system. Navigation to cover emphasis on
terrain clearance, proximity of check points, and 45 minute fuel
reserve. Be able to select checkpoints that will be viable a
night. Severe VFR at night is best flying weather with 1/4 moon
or more. The night pilot is semi-IFR. Airports at night harbor
optical illusions and minimal crosswind references. Any fog or
low clouds can completely change the appearance of an area.
The most difficult aspect of night operations just happens to
be taxiing. Be prepared to ask for assistance or that the lighting
be turned up. The night takeoff becomes critical if disorientation
should occur. You should be reasonably able to fly on instruments
any time at night. Be sure you have set your gyro and predetermined
your departure heading. Know your terrain. The actual landing
is done with power on and not at a full stall.
See instructional material on night flying.
XII. AREA OF OPERATION - POSTFLIGHT PROCEDURES
A. Task:
AFTER LANDING
REFERENCES: AC 61-21; Airplane Handbook and Flight Manual
P 1. Knows and discusses importance and sequence of after landing
procedures
P 2. Taxies to the parking/refueling area using the proper wind
control technique and obstacle avoidance procedures.
P 3. Completes the appropriate checklist.
EX Able to explain positioning of controls for taxi, reason for
power to taxi and position for parking, reasons for shutdown
checklist and procedure. Reasons for securing procedure and post flight
inspection. Checklist, clearing runway, cleaning up airplane,
clearance and read back
When landing in a crosswind the controls are correctly positioned
for taxiing on the runway. The controls must be positioned during
each turn from the runway and every taxiway to configure the
aircraft for the wind. Flaps should be removed prior to application
of brakes. It is possible to lock the brakes while the flaps
are down at moderate speeds. Such braking will give a destructive
"flat" on the tire in just a few feet. Carburetor heat
should be removed during ground operations since the heated air
is unfiltered and potentially damaging to the engine. The aircraft
must be taxied across any hold bars on a taxiway or well clear
if on an intersecting runway. You should acknowledge any change
of tower frequency to ground but do not ever change until across
the hold bars. Stop while contacting ground.
Taxi on the centerline even around corners. Remember that an
aircraft to your right has the right of way. Be sure to acknowledge
any ground communications directed to you. On entering the parking
area use only the amount of braking/power required to make a
smooth turn and smooth stop.
--Straighten the nose wheel during the last few degrees of your
parking turn. Idle at 800 rpm.
--Get out your shut down checklist and follow it regardless of
how emotionally exhausted you may be. Radio to 121.5. Radios,
electrical, off.
--Magneto check, mixture out, momentary increase in throttle
then retard. Magnetos off. Control lock. Log time. Exit.
While you push back the plane check tires. Listen! Let the examiner
know that you are making a visual inspection of the aircraft
as to tie down the aircraft. Check the oil. With repetition you
can learn how much oil a hot engine holds. Get all your materials
organized. Clean up the cockpit.
Order fuel for the next guy. You might level the prop if it can
be done safely.
B Task:
PARKING
AND SECURING
REFERENCES: AC 51-21, operating handbook, flight manual
P 1. Knows and is able to discuss parking and securing procedures,
hand signals, precautions
P 2. Parks carefully and properly with consideration of others.
P 3. Uses checklist to shut down engine sequentially and securing
the cockpit.
P 4. completes the appropriate checklist.
P 5. Makes post flight inspection
Least familiar
FARs 91.11
Prohibits any person from interfering with a pilot in the performance
of being a pilot.
91.15
Dropping of objects from an aircraft is allowed if it does not
endanger persons or property.
91.19
Prohibits air transport of illegal drugs with pilots knowledge.
91.21
Pilot may not operate or allow to be operated any electronic
device without finding out that it will not interfere with radios
or navigational equipment.
FAR 91.137
Temporary Flight Restrictions (TFRs) in certain areas when emergency
operations are underway. A pilot is required to know about these
prior to every flight by getting appropriate NOTAMS for the flight
route.
FAR 91.141 and 91.143
Protects airspace operations for public figures or space rockets.
FAR 91.187
Failure of any nav/com equipment when IFR must be reported to
ATC.
FAR Part 43 and Appendix A
Pilot maintenance
FAR 91. 43.9 (a) and 91.407(a)
Related paper work and required logbook signature for return
to service.
Landing
Light
The landing light is the only part of the electrical system
in which replacement by the owner/pilot is specifically authorized
to troubleshoot and repair by FAR Part 43. The system consists
of a power source, a safety device, an on/off switch and the
light itself. The landing light is the only electrical part that
FAR Part-43 authorizes owners to repair. Any repairs must be
entered into the aircraft logbook.
Many landing lights have been moved from the nose of the aircraft
to the wings because of frequent outages caused by landing shock
and engine vibration. Initial troubleshooting begins with a close
look at the landing light filament. Then comes a power check
with a voltmeter. This includes a continuity check of the landing
light wiring with special attention to the connector from the
cowling to the firewall.
The absence of a landing light is not a no-fly situation in Part
91 operations. Every pilot should be proficient at night with
and without the landing light. Night currency is required within
90 days for carrying passengers.
Logging
Time
For logging purposes, VFR fuel requirements and VFR cloud
clearances, night is from the end of civil twilight to the beginning
of civil twilight. Currency is from one hour after to one hour
before. The tower turns on its beacon at sunset and sunrise.
This is also when aircraft are expected to turn on position lights
Making
the PIC Decision at Night
--Why is the 'One-Eighty' so difficult to make?
--Teaching the required decision making skills takes real-time exposure to the conditions
--Have an alternate plan before making the flight.
--Use a dark night as a means to expose student to IFR flying.
--Teach that night VFR conditions may not be VFR.
When
Is Night?
--Night means the time between end of evening civil twilight
and the beginning of morning civil twilight.
--Turn on navigational lights including beacon and anti-collision
at sunset. May go off at sunrise.
--Night flight currency time must be logged between one hour
after sunset and one hour before sunrise.
--Currency landings must be performed in category and class of
aircraft.
--All night currency landings must be made to a full stop. Stop
and go landings are o.k.
--Currency lasts 90 day from the date in which the first of the
last three night landings took place.
When
It Is Night
--The number of accidents are six times more than the same percentage
of daytime flying. (4 to 5 percent)
--Requirements are minimums. I previously required twice as much
including a mountain night flight.
--Private PTS requires three hours of instruction, a 100 mile
night flight and ten full stop night landings.
--90-day currency requires three full stop landings.
--Night landings and flight for meeting requirements must take
place one hour after official sunset.
--Safe night flying requires considerations not necessary during
the day.
--The eyes function differently and more poorly at night. A pilot
needs to learn to see at night.
--The older you get the longer it takes for your night vision
to adjust and the quicker it can be destroyed.
--At 4000' night vision is 5 percent decreased, at 6000 it is
20 percent decreased
use oxygen.
--A smoker at 6000' has 40 percent decrease in night vision.
Quit flying or give up smoking.
--You may not see something at night unless you look slightly
to one side of where you expect it to be.
--Light aircraft pilots have a disproportionate number of fatal
accidents at night.
--The risks of night flying in familiar areas is far less than
the same flying where unfamiliar.
--Whitt's safety rule of thumb: Don't fly into an airport at
night that you haven't seen in daylight.
--Far more aircraft are damaged on the ground during night taxiing
than in night flying.
--The darker the night the greater the risk. I require 1/4 moon
light for night cross-countries. Fly ifr (I follow roads)
--Any night flight that can bring on IFR conditions should only
be flown as an IFR flight.
--Make a practice of listening to all available AWOS and ASOS
frequencies
--A night VFR into IFR conditions has a five times greater fatal
accident rate than planned IFR flight.
--When lights get a halo around them it is a sign that partial
obscuration exists due to condensation.
--Figuring out aircraft directions by the lights you see can
be difficult
--Red to your right and green to your left means the plane is
coming toward you.
--You want to avoid by turning right so that you can see only
the red light on his left side.
--Turn off strobes when in IFR conditions at night to prevent
vertigo causing situation.
--If you see a green light to your right it is coming toward you and passing you on your right.
--Any time you see a red aircraft light at your altitude you
should change altitude and turn right.
--Strobe lights on the ground can cause all kinds of perception
problems depending on visibility.
--The FAR minimum fuel reserve is a minimum and not nearly enough.
Fill up before dark.
--Half of all engine failure accidents at night are related to
fuel problems.
--Out of options
Slow, full up trim, full flaps, minimum
forward speed and descent speed, secure cockpit
--Scud running does not work at night.
--Lights at night are Siren songs tempting IFR pilots to bust
minimums
don't
--Safest night landings are made using visual approach slope
guidance especially in low visibility.
--Any sort of problem is most difficult to handle at night when
in IFR conditions. Luck is your best friend.
--Planning and operational mistakes are even more unforgiving
at night.
Emergency
Training
--Do not let distractions take you away from flying the aircraft
--Do what it takes to get to the ground in landing position
--Training that does not expect the unexpected is not preparing
you for what will happen
--The emergency question is not if; it is when and to what extent.
--All emergencies would be better practiced with cockpit smoke
--Only current emergency training is adequate to the situation
--It takes ten seconds to run an engine operational check of
C.H. mixture, throttle, mags , master & selector
--A true emergency only allows you to be wrong once.
--Major negative of simulated emergency is absence of realism.
Saving
Your Life Once Is Enough
--One lesson doing the Dutch Roll enabled a new pilot to
land in 39 knot crosswinds.
--Reading the windsock correctly is a necessary skill
--Practice reading wind socks by estimating wind before listening to ATIS
--You need to be ready not to land
--Clearing the approaches to a runway only has to save your life
one time.
--Excess speed in the pattern always creates problems
--Winds are always a variable and a factor in landings and approaches
--Certain structures or land/water features can affect the pattern
known only to locals
--Plan to land on the first third of the runway or go-around
--It is better to go off the end of the runway than to crash
in a failed go-around.
--Never fly below the VASI slope, even VFR.
--Obstacles that move down your windshield will pass below you..
--A two-percent down slope will require up to 20 percent more
runway for stopping.
--A 10 knot tailwind component will double all aspects of the
obstacle clearance and stopping distance.
--We should practice for the one-percent of landings where our
best skills will be required.
To Land Is the Only Option
--Identify the problem as solvable or insolvable
--Select only fields you can reach easily.
--You have one minute useful time per thousand feet.
--Trim all the way if you don't know how much, hands off.
--Make two choices, first and second
--Use your checklist
--Secure the cockpit
--If low, limit heading changes for into wind
--Its to late to change below 1000'
--Talking is the last thing to do.
--Think behind you land wind direction
--Once committed to spot use takeoff procedures
--Slide seats back, block doors, tighten belts
--Sterile cockpit below 2000', plan your pattern.
--Avoid using brakes when down.
--After crash, deplane to the rear
Night flying
Afterthoughts
--Make day flights in plane before making night flight
--Avoid night flights into airports you have not flown into during the day
--Check all exterior and interior lighting during preflight.
--Carry multiple flashlights
--Choose moonlit cloudless nights as first choice.
--Last choice is solid IFR at night
--Fly an airport vicinity route over lower terrain
--Use all ATC facilities possible
--Fly conservative fuel numbers.
--Practice/prepare for electrical and other system failures
--More than twice as many night accidents result in fatalities as daytime
Factors
--Illusions
--Striking unseen objects on the ground
--Dark night with no references in poor weather
--Dark night with no references in good weather
Techniques
--Oxygen above 5000
--If you see light twinkle, climb
--Always fly a full pattern at night
--Dim lights are best seen to the side
--Narrow runway will appear farther away
--Unfamiliar narrow runway at night makes you think you are higher than you are.
An Account of a Night Emergency
Thought I would share my first emergency....
I was flying from MBO (Madison MS) to L31 (Covington LA) to meet my sister for
dinner, and get some night time hours on the return trip. I have done this
trip many times.
Left Madison at 5:00 p.m. with an expected arrival at 6:15. I am starting my
IFR training, so figured to really focus on holding altitude and heading
working on "precision flying". I was doing great all along
the trip, and looking ahead, saw major buildups in my path. Called 122.00 and
asked for an in flight advisory. Weather was moving SSW and though close, they
said I should make my destination. Little did I know the weather would be the
least of my concerns.
15 miles from my destination cruising at 3500, I got a horrible vibration
throughout the engine. First thing I did was put the carb heat on. Made the
vibration even worse. I held the carb heat for about 10 seconds, and turned it
off. Immediately saw a "target farm field" should I need it and
never let it leave my sight. Next, switched tanks, no change in vibration.
Next fuel pump, no change. Next, checked my mags, left, then right, no change
in vibration.
Next, turned to 121.5 and said, This is Sundowner 12345L declaring an
emergency, anybody monitoring the frequency. As I am doing this, I am setting
myself up for the "best glide" speed of 78 knots. Guard responds
with Sundowner 12345L, go ahead with your emergency. I replied back, I have an
extremely rough running engine, I am 12 miles from destination, I have an
alternative field in sight should I need it, I will be sqawking 7700. I then
turn the transponder to 7700. In this short time, I lost 500 valuable feet
altitude.
As I reduced my power, and enriched the engine, trying different
"power" settings, I noticed the vibration reduced somewhat. I
watched my VSI, and noticed that I was able to "maintain" a 200 foot
descent. Quick math in my head said, I had "15 minutes" flying time
if I left my configuration the way it was, and now I was 10 miles from
destination. 121.5 gets New Orleans approach, and New Orleans approach gets on
121.5 and tells me to squawk 4026. I acknowledge New Orleans approach, change
my transponder to 4026, and said to New Orleans approach, that I have a stable
200 foot descent rate, engine is running rough, and my intentions is to
proceed on to L31. Once I made my decision, I pretty much left what I had
going alone. 4 miles out, I said "New Orleans approach, Sundowner 12345L
request to change to 122.80. New Orleans approach said frequency change
approved, please call FSS to let us know you are safe on the ground. I said
Sundowner 12345. will call FSS after touchdown.
Night Fright
---Things look different at night
---At night you many not be where you think you are
---Alaskan pilots may need to wait a year to get the night requirements for the
private pilot.
---Failure to get the night requirements will void an Alaskan pilot’s license.
---Statistics show that night takeoffs are four times more hazardous than the
same takeoff daytime.
---Dark-hole disorientation is a factor in 26% of the accidents
---The average life expectancy of a VFR pilot in night IFR is one minute.
---Older pilots become aware of inherent risks of single engine night flight.
---Early on ¼ of all my private pilot flying was a night, now I do it only
instructional.
---Finding airports at night is very difficult unless you know what to look for
and where to look close by.
---Taxiing on an unfamiliar airport is the most difficult aspect of night
instruction. We always taxi back.
Night
Flights
The hazards of night flying are directly related to the physiological
limitations of the human body. Night flying will be different.
Night flight is more stressful than day flying and very near
to IFR flight without the required training. It should be, a
moderate amount of stress will improve performance, keep the
pilot awake and motivated. However, subtle events occur at night
that would be easily detectable in daylight. Night flight requires
the pilot be very familiar with the area and have special knowledge
that can be acquired only through experience. I suggest you get
this experience along with a pilot who has already acquired the
experience.
On of the most difficult operations at night is taxiing. Many aircraft have inadequate taxi lights and even lighted airports have unlighted areas. A tower signal light can be used to show the center taxi line. As age enters the picture, night vision fails. A year or so ago I taxied the nosewheel into the mud while showing a student how to taxi without lights. It was a good lesson, for the instructor. When taxiing use as much lighting as you can and get any available assistance from ATC. Being totally lost on your home airport is not uncommon. Once had airport truck assist taxiing at night in heavy ground fog.
Night flight is so completely different from day that it requires careful introduction. Any pilot deficiencies become magnified at night. The night horizon is often less visible and more indistinct. Night flight is semi-IFR with considerable reliance on the instruments. Terrain and clouds are difficult to impossible to see. On moonless nights, the objects seen are those which are illuminated enough to stand out. There can be a gradual loss of visual clues when flying into darker terrain. This leads to disorientation and loss of control. Not having instruments easily visible/readable is bothersome. A 30-degree turn that is unobserved can cause complete disorientation. The absence of a horizon can cause loss of control. Both situational and geographic disorientation is more likely.
Fatigue has greater influence on pilot skills at night. The retina is the first and fastest part of the body to react to reduction of blood oxygen. Cigarette smokers start out with an immediate night vision problem. Night vision can be improved by the use of oxygen. Night flying errors happen because of human lack of capability. Night vision is the key limit. Without surface lights, it is hard to know your altitude above the ground, with surface lights it is difficult to locate the airport beacon. Most night accidents occur on 'dark night' flights. 4% of flying is done at night with 25% of accidents.
The eye is much like a video camera. A view is focused on the retina, converted electrically to data sent to the brain. Rods and cones make the visual to electrical conversion. Cones, near the focal center give colors, brightness and sharpness when light is good. Rods are the night-vision part of seeing. The peripheral region of the retina is rod territory. Rods make it so we can see at night but not in color. Complete night adaptation of the eye to darkness can take over 30 minutes and be destroyed in seconds.
There is an oval shaped region of the retina known as the blind spot. It cannot see light. Binocular vision compensates for this in daytime. At night we often are unable to see objects if we look directly at them. To see at night we cannot look directly at what we want to see. Your central vision is inoperative. Looking off center at night uses peripheral vision, which is 100,000 times more sensitive than central vision at night. Your eyes can be adapted to night vision by wearing red glasses, patching one eye and using dimmed lighting. No matter how well you do this one flash of a strobe taxiing out destroys it all. It the lighted airports of today I prefer to work in a lighted cockpit. I like to see my strange charts clearly with all obstacle heights known and avoided. 90% of our orientation is visual even in the cockpit. NASA has proven that there is less oxygen at night than during the day. The eye is quite susceptible to oxygen deficiency so vision at night at 9000 gives the visual acuity that you would have at 15000 during the day.
The use of colors other than red in the cockpit has become more common in the 1990s. Light-emitting diodes are more efficient than other systems and will be in all cockpits of the future. Blue lighting such as common in military aircraft requires much more lighting than white.
FAR Part 1 defines official "night" so pilots can log the conditions of flight, day or night required by FAR 61.51 (b)(3)(i). Twilight is the time of incomplete darkness after sunset or before sunrise. FAR 6157(d) defines pilot proficiency requirement that must be complied with before the pilot can be pilot in command of an aircraft carrying passengers at night. This is the time one-hour after sunset and one hour before sunrise. This more restrictive "night" is designed to assure pilot proficiency. The less restrictive requirement can be used for meeting certificate requirements. FAR 91.209 requires that position lights and anti-collision lights be used from sunset to sunrise.
Night flight adds to the risk of single-engine flying. Emergency options are reduced. The new VFR minimums have increased the impact of weather. Mandated preparation for the flight such as lights and flashlights make a difference. You will be much more able to cope if you maintain radio contact with ATC and have a readily available frequency list. I avoid night training flights that have less than 1/4 moon. Common mistake is flying when combination of pilot, conditions, aircraft, and preparation are not up to making the flight. AIM recommends oxygen use above 5000 at night and at 10,000 daytime.
The ability to judge distances and heights at night is reduced at night. The absence of haze or its presence can cause illusions at night especially when using landing lights. Lights will vary in intensity and cause illusion effects. A mis-identified light source can cause total confusion. A single light gives no altitude information. Multiple lights may be in different geometric visual planes. Freeways become visible while country roads disappear. Aircraft and lighted towers become visible for miles. Airports have beacons, look for them.
Preparation for night flight must be more intensive and comprehensive. Make your initial night flight preflight during the day. Check all the lights and carry a spare bulb. Visual checkpoints are much closer. Fuel reserves are doubled. Charts are marked with black felt tip pens. Frequencies are written large. Terrain altitudes are noted and crossing extra altitude added. Weather makes a big difference. At night you can't see weather unless there is a moon. We get very used to seeing weather change during the day. Weather changes much the same way at night but quicker. You must expect weather changes at night to occur suddenly simply because we cannot see the changes as we can in daytime.
Nothing in the FARs requires lights for takeoff or landing at night at either controlled or uncontrolled airports. ATC cannot clear you to land at an unlighted runway. Any landing is at your own risk. Obstruction clearance and avoidance is a pilot responsibility. You can fly and log flight time at night without being night current.
FARs
FAR 1.1 Definitions Night means the time between the end
of evening civil twilight and the beginning of morning civil
twilight, as published in the American Air almanac, converted
to local time.
New FAR: 3 mile visibility plus cloud clearance 500/1000/2000 unless in pattern 1/2 mile of airport. Above 10,000 5 mile visibility, 1000/1000/1 mile
PTS Pilot operation 9 (FAR 61.107) Pilot must have SOME night
instruction before being qualified to be eligible to take flight
test. To be fully certified for night flight a student must have
at least three hours of instruction at night with ten full-stop
landings.
Sec. 61.57 Recent flight experience: Pilot in command. [snip]
(d) Night experience. No person may act as pilot in command of an aircraft carrying passengers during the period beginning 1 hour after sunset and ending 1 hour before sunrise (as published in the American Air Almanac) unless, within the preceding 90 days, he has made at least three takeoffs and three landings to a full stop during that period in the category and class of aircraft to be used. This paragraph does not apply to operations requiring an airline transport pilot certificate.
Sec. 91.209 No person may, during the period from sunset to
sunrise...
a. Operate an aircraft unless it has lighted position lights.
b. park or move an aircraft... Unless the aircraft--
1. Is clearly illuminated;
2. Has lighted position lights;
3. Is in an area which is marked by obstruction lights.
d. Operate an aircraft (as required above) unless it has approved and lighted aviation red or aviation white Anticollision lights. (Unless pilot determines safety requires they be off.)
Equipment
I suggest that you come equipped with at least three flashlights.
I carry four but one is a headset with one light to each side
of my glasses I like this for IFR work when cockpit lighting
is poor. I understand that the use of a Velcro head strap can
be used to hold a mini-mag in much the same manner. This method
allows rapid removal or use as required. I use a full size D-cell
flash for preflight and post flight operations. My first extra
is a smaller 9-volt that has a clip for either clothes or lapboard.
My second extra is a mini-mag. Spare batteries and bulbs.
One poster to rec.aviation.student has a recommendation for those who prefer the potential vision saving benefits of red. He says, "Don't overlook those bright LED taillights for bikes when shopping for a light for night flying. They are bright in a dark cockpit, small, red and mine CLAIMS to last for some ridiculous time (like 1500 hrs?) on a pair of AA's. Look for one made to clip on the back of your shirt or jacket when cycling, and clip it on your shirt pocket, or just hold it in the palm of your hand when flying. Works great, costs $15-20, batteries included..." I havent tried it. But in the poor lighting of older aircraft it sounds like a great idea.
At night you dont want to run out of writing instruments. I loop rubber bands together and hang pens on the yoke, clipboard, and someplace else. These are in addition to the ones in my pocket and under by watchband. You dont ever want to get caught without a pen at night.
Preparation
You should review the physiology of night vision so as to
better understand the operation of the eye. Over age 40, fatigue,
and smoking affect visual acuity and adaptation to darkness.
Do not look directly at an object at night because the optic
nerve location may not let you see it. The decrease in oxygen
above 4000' decreases visual efficiency. The Air Force requires
full oxygen from the surface at night. The light smoker is physiologically
at 3000' before he gets into the plane. Above 8000' at night
it is a good idea to have oxygen. Since we don't see as well
as might be desired at night we must compensate using experience
(brains) and technology.
Before I stopped teaching smokers to fly, I would take my oxygen kit on my longer night flights. I would have the smoker use a coffin nail just before getting into the plane. We would climb to 8000 and I would have him use oxygen. Invariably they would remark that lights all over the area had been suddenly turned on. This night flight along with recognition of the other health hazards made all of my students give up smoking. I can emphasize with smokers trying to quit. I gave up coffee last December and was able to drop my blood pressure 10 points. Its tough to do unless you are properly motivated.
Any bright light effectively reduces night vision. Even the white flash of a rotating beacon is capable of destroying your preserved night vision. You might try protecting one eye from light until airborne. Try wearing sunglasses at dusk. My personal preference is to use full white cockpit lighting and rely on airport lighting for landing and taxiing.
A listing of areas that require preparation beyond that which
is considered appropriate for day flights would be.
When you fly at night you should prepare by:
1. Being able to hand draw your approach and departure routes
from the airports to be used.
2. Being able to hand draw your taxi routes regardless of the kinds of landing planned.
3. Becoming aware of the many illusions that occur at night you will see the necessity of (1) and (2) above. Causes of vertigo and disorientation.
4. Making an honest assessment of current skills, and familiarity with the aircraft with emphasis on fuel reserves and shorter-range limits. Biological clock and fatigue factors must be considered.
5. Making a route study of terrain heights, obstruction heights, minimum safe altitudes with night flight safety margins, airport information, and frequencies for com and nav. Checkpoints based on night conditions
7. Making a weather study of moon phase, cloud conditions, dew point spread, freezing level, and visibility. Where cloud decks may exist consider possibilities of over flying or under flying cloud cover and the hazards incurred thereby.
8. Comparing the new FAR requirements with forecast weather conditions.
9. Taking a blindfold test of the cockpit switches and controls.
10. Cockpit organized with charts in order and folded for use. Pens and flashlights along with spare batteries.
11. Emergency alternatives including non-electronic options. Airport options for diversion.
12. Familiar and unfamiliar airport preparation including phone contact for local procedures and advice. Planned fuel stops at FBOs and credit card pumps. When towers close you can expect to find left-hand traffic to right runways, but not every time.
13. Referral to the Airport/Facilities Directory to determine airport lighting changes, operational procedures, critical information, and cautions.
Return to whittsflying Home
Page
Continued On Page 2.92 PTS Health Factors