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PTS
Airport and Ground Patterns
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Contents
…NORMAL AND CROSSWIND TAKEOFFS;
…NORMAL AND CROSSWIND TAKEOFF;
…NORMAL /CROSSWIND APPROACHES AND
LANDINGS; …Crosswind Approach
and Landing; …SOFT-FIELD TAKEOFF
AND CLIMB; … SOFT-FIELD APPROACH
AND LANDING; … SHORT-FIELD TAKEOFF
AND CLIMB; …SHORT-FIELD APPROACH
AND ACCURACY LANDING; …Special
Landing Situations; … FORWARD
SLIPS TO LANDING; …GO-AROUND;
… STEEP (CONSTANT ALTITUDE) TURNS;
… Descending Turns; …
RECTANGULAR COURSE; … S-TURNS;
…TURNS AROUND A POINT; ...Turns about a Point; …Student
Question; …2003 Taxiing Changes;
...Runway Incursion Prevention; ...AC
91-73A Checklists Annotated Condensed for General Aviation; ...Towered
Taxi Procedures Checklist; ...Towered
Arrival Taxi Procedures Checklist; ...Non-Towered
Departure Taxi Procedures Checklist; ...Non-Towered
Arrival Taxi Procedures Checklist; ...(AC 91.73A Information Duplicated on 4.88); ...Emails
with FAA Official; ...Flying
as Though You Lived Below; ...
AREA OF OPERATION
TAKEOFFS, LANDINGS AND GO-AROUNDS
A. Task: NORMAL AND CROSSWIND TAKEOFF AND CLIMB
REFERENCES: AC 61-21; Airplane Handbook and Flight Manual
NORMAL
AND CROSSWIND TAKEOFFS
Vy + 10 and - 5 knots
P 1. Know elements of normal and crosswind takeoff and climb,
positions flight controls, flaps, clears, runway alignment,
P 2. CHECKLIST, center line, smooth power, gauges, directional
control, rotation speed, Vy attitude within 5 kts., trim, (flaps/gear
if any) alignment, completes C H E C K L I S T
EX Takeoff elements, clearing, alignment, rotation, climb, airspeeds,
configuration, emergency. May need to discuss crosswind if none
exists. Complete pre-takeoff checklist. Windows, belts, doors,
tower frequency, transponder ON, time check, trim set, emergency
CHECKLIST. Review communications, departure course, first checkpoint,
next frequency. Monitor tower frequency. Contact tower before
leaving runup area; get time check. "Taxi closer and hold;
taxi into position and hold; cleared for immediate takeoff",
are common ATC directives. Acknowledge and comply with the first
two if approach is clear. Refuse any clearance for immediate
takeoff unless you are really ready.
When cleared, turn plane to clear base and final approach areas
while taxiing smoothly to align with the runway center line.
Apply smooth full power, applying back pressure to relieve weight
from nose wheel. Use right rudder to maintain runway alignment.
Set nose attitude that will give lift off at Vso. When airborne
lower nose to Vy attitude, accelerate, and trim.
At 300' check engine instruments, runway alignment, and possible
parallel runway traffic. Position heading to maintain alignment.
Plan turns at above safe/required altitudes with headings wind
corrected to give desired crosswind ground track. Keep hand on
throttle until above 1000'.
If departing straight out from one of two parallel runways it
is wise to make at least a 10-degree turn away from the adjacent
runway. This should be done regardless of wind conditions. Standard
departures are at 45 degrees. A crosswind departure is at right
angles. A downwind departure parallels the runway at least until
mid-field. A 270 degree turning departure over the airport usually
requires that crossing the airport exceed the pattern altitude
by 500'. If it is possible to misconstrue the direction of your
departure it is wise to include your destination as an indicator.
Expect to be judged during the test on use of after-takeoff checklist
on EVERY takeoff.
See instructional material on takeoffs and departures.
NORMAL
AND CROSSWIND TAKEOFF
References: AC 61-21, POH, Flight manual
Vy + 10 and - 5 knots
P 1. Knows all elements related to normal and crosswind
operations. How are things the same and how are they different.
P 2. Holds yoke properly for wind and flaps according to POH.
P 3. Clears area, taxies into positing and alignment on centerline.
P 4. Smooth power changes to appropriate settings.
P 5. Rotates at recommended airspeed, after liftoff accelerates
and climbs at Vy
P 6. Pitch and climb set for Vy climb +10/-5 knots.
P 7. Gear and flaps set as required by POH.
P 8. Takeoff power maintained to safe maneuvering altitude.
P 9. Direction and crab maintained as required on takeoff and
climb.
P 10. Knows and follows noise abatement procedures.
P 11. C H E C K L I S T, center line, smooth power, gauges, aileron
deflection, yoke position, directional control, rotation to crab
angle, Vy attitude within 5 kts, trim, (flaps/gear if any), alignment,
C H E CK L I S T.
EX Takeoff elements such as elevator deflection, yoke pressure,
lift off rotation, crabbing, alignment, climb, airspeed, ground
track wind allowances in turns and headings.
Complete pre takeoff checklist. Windows, belts, doors, tower
frequency, transponder ON, time and wind checks, emergency options,
C H E C K L I S T , a i l e r o n -d e f e l e c t i o n -f o
r- w i n d . Review communications, departure course, first checkpoint,
next frequency.
Use normal takeoff procedures from previous section except be
sure to maintain aileron deflection and yoke pressure sufficient
to avoid premature lift off. Premature lift off may cause the
plane to slide/skip sideways on the runway, raise the upwind
wing, and make the aircraft uncontrollable. Hold the plane on
the runway until sufficient airspeed is available to permit quick
movement of the yoke and ailerons. This movement must be sufficient
to get the aircraft airborne, in ground effect, crabbed, level,
into the wind with rudder, and without returning to the ground.
Five knots above Vso is deemed sufficient. Hold Vy and use crab
to keep ground track in alignment with the runway.
Be aware that where parallel runways exist more or less crab
angle may be desirable to assure clearance from the adjacent
runway. Adjustments must be made to the crosswind, downwind,
and base legs to adjust for proper ground track.
Airport patterns must be adjusted on the downwind and base by
crabbing to maintain ground track. The turns must be adjusted
as to lead time and angle to correct for the wind factor. Winds
can cause illusions of speed over the ground that are not translated
into airspeed on the indicator. Fly the airspeed.
Common errors are failing to maintain proper aileron yoke position,
letting aircraft settle back down after liftoff, improper application
of rudder at liftoff, failing to maintain/vary crab angle to
maintain alignment, failing to maintain airspeed during crosswind
turns.
See instructional material on airport procedures.
B.
Task: NORMAL/CROSSWIND APPROACHES AND LANDINGS
REFERENCE: AC 61-21, Handbook, Manual
NORMAL AND CROSSWIND LANDING PROCEDURES
Recommended speeds or 1.3 Vso + 10 and - 5 knots plus gust factor,
within 400 feet past selected touchdown point
P 1. Knows all elements related to normal and crosswind operations.
How are things the same and how are they different.
P 2. Uses conditions of wind, airport and obstructions to select
best approach and touchdown point.
P 3. Uses recommended approach, configuration, speed, pitch and
power as required.
P 4. Has stabilized approach at recommended Vref approach speed
and no more than 1.2 Vso +10/-5 knots + gust factor.
P 5. Smoothly performs the flying required by the airport pattern.
Maintain the approach speed from the numbers to flare within
5 knots. Make smooth, timely flight corrections.
P 6. Makes touch down within 400' beyond selected point with
no drift and the longitudinal axis over and aligned with the
runway centerline.
P 7. Maintains crosswind correction and directional control throughout
the approach and landing.
P 8. Completes the appropriate checklist.
EX Be able to explain all elements, including airspeed, flap
use, and traffic safety. Discuss how you must fly to obtain a
desired ground track by compensating for the wind. Tell how airspeed
control makes it possible to achieve landing accuracy.
The key word is smooth. The best complement that can be
paid a pilot is that he is smooth. To be smooth you must both
plan and anticipate every step you will perform in the landing
process. It is helpful to verbalize as you proceed. CHECKLIST
"Downwind mid-field, pre-landing fuel, mixture, gauges,
altitude, track. Abeam the numbers, Carb Heat, power 1500, hold
heading and altitude. Trim down three. At 60 knots, 1500' and
pattern altitude, 4 count of flaps, yoke forward, trim up one.
CLEAR, slightly forward into the turn, rudder, back pressure
at 30 degrees, slightly forward to level. 60 knots, 4 count of
flaps, yoke forward, trim up one. CLEAR, 60 knots rudder, slightly
forward into the turn, back pressure at 30 degrees, slightly
forward to level. 60 knots, 6 count of flaps or as required,
60 knots, 60 knots! 1500 RPM,
Roundout and begin to reduce power in 100 RPM increments as yoke
is logarithmically brought full back and up throughout the flare.
Hold the yoke full back until the nose falls by itself.
Post landing CHECKLIST. Clean up the flaps and cockpit.
With the foregoing as a base it is relatively easy to correct
errors in the approach. Try to keep the power of 1500 RPM and
the 60 knots airspeed as constants. Use the flight path and flaps
to set up your final approach glide path. If you are ever low
add full power for up to 30 seconds while holding 60 knots with
forward pressure; then back to 1500 RPM. If after full flaps
you are high, reduce power in increments. If still high speed
may be reduced to 55 or even slower if aircraft is light.
Any drift on final must be corrected by side slip. Keep the nose
parallel to the center line with the rudder and lower the wing
to slide the plane into line with the center of the runway. This
is half a Dutch roll. Since wind velocities vary with altitude
so must your slip corrections be varied. You should not
see the runway at moment of in a full stall landing. Keep your
eyes on the horizon for visual indication of ballooning.
See instructional material on landings
Aside: Only the FAA would consider grouping the explanation
of the normal and crosswind procedures under the same heading.
Here is my addendum for the crosswind landing. Gene
Crosswind
Approach and Landing
References: AC 61-21, Airplane Handbook and Flight Manual
Recommended speeds or 1.3 Vso + 10 and - 5 knots plus gust
factor, within 400 feet past selected touchdown point
P 1. The oral explanation may take place of actual execution.
To demonstrate ability to fly a ground track airport pattern
which compensates for wind.
P 2. Able to correct and hold final approach path, within 5 knots
of approach speed, in a slip.
P 3. To allow no drift during flare, and to fully apply ailerons
on the ground. Touch down to be within 400' of a given point.
P 4. Maintains directional control and yoke position throughout
approach, landing, and taxiing.
EX Be able to explain how the pattern, turns, configuration, and coordination of controls differ from a normal landing.
The basic element of crosswind landing skill is the automatic
application of "Dutch roll" on final. Without this
training as a base little can be achieved. The next most important
element is being able to fly the airport pattern as a ground
reference maneuver to make possible a safe entry into final approach.
You should, as you copy an ATIS, diagram the wind direction and
velocity as a vector toward the landing runway. Basic knowledge
of winds also tells us that wind velocities normally decrease
with altitude. There is a wind at 1000' that differs from that
at 500' that differs from that at 50' that differs from that
at 5'.
In the airport pattern on downwind it is vital that you do not
allow the wind to drift you inside the normal pattern. Such a
situation will necessitate tighter than normal turns to final.
This is the situation that leads to the so called deadly downwind
turn. If this occurs, don't attempt to salvage the situation,
go around. A cross wind velocity of up to 15 knots can be handled
with 20 degrees of flap. Beyond 15 knots don't use any flaps.
In the C-150 once the nose leaves the ground the engineering
geometry allows the wheel and faring to align with the wind.
Regardless of the rudder position the wheel is centered into
the relative wind. This means that during any landing, while
it is better not to let the nose wheel touch before the mains,
no critical loss of control is likely to occur because of the
nose wheel. (Not so with Pipers)
In a crosswind it is better to have a slightly longer than normal
final approach. A 90-degree crosswind give you an effective zero
head wind. With limited or no flaps your angle of descent will
be less than normal. It becomes desirable to maintain power at
1500 since the prop blast adds to the effectiveness of the rudder.
If, after holding full rudder, you are unable to keep the line
of rivets on the nose parallel to the runway center line you
must increase the rudder effect available by increasing airspeed
and possibly power. If the nose rivets cannot be kept parallel
to the runway center line then the crosswind exceeds the landing
capability of the pilot and plane. This happens. Go somewhere
else or even request landing on a cross taxiway.
Common faults during crosswind landings are several. The common
fault of coming in too close on downwind at a small airport is
accentuated in a crosswind situation. Turn downwind and hold
that leg twice as far away as you think you should and you will
probably be right. Extend your downwind leg and don't get blown
in. Set up your final approach slip as far out as possible and
hold it all the way to the ground. Leave your power in until
just before touch down as an aid for dealing with gusts. Don't
hurry just because you are close to the ground. Slowly reduce
the power to settle the plane and hold the yoke well over. The
closer the wingtip comes to the ground the less likely you are
to be flipped by the wind. Keep the plane rolling straight with
rudder.
Because of the geometry of a Piper nose wheel it is vital that
the nose wheel not be allowed to contact the ground until the
rudder is centered.
See instructional material on cross wind landings.
C. Task:
SOFT-FIELD TAKEOFF AND CLIMB
REFERENCES: AC 61-21; Airplane Handbook and Flight Manual.
SOFT FIELD TAKEOFF PROCEDURES
In ground effect to Vy, then climb Vy +10 and - 5 knots
P 1. Pilot is able to explain the surface conditions that require
specific control and power use that will allow the aircraft to
lift off, accelerate and climb. Pilot knows soft-field procedure
recommended in the POH and configures aircraft (flaps) accordingly.
P 2. Sets controls for wind and maximum lift while configured
as the POH recommends and without stopping.
P 3. Clears area, taxis with speed to keep nose wheel from sticking.
Smooth constant to full takeoff power throttle application.
P 4. Pitch attitude set to transfer weight from wheels to wings
as quickly as conditions allow. If you don't have 40% of the
required airspeed by half-way, abort.
P 5. Lifts off and remains in ground effect while accelerating
to Vy.
P 6. Pitch attitude for Vy which is flown at +10/-5 knots during
climb.
P 7. retracts gear and flaps on establishment of positive Vy
rate of climb. (This retraction used to be at 200')
P 8. Takeoff power to safe maneuvering altitude.
P 9. Directional control and wind drift correction maintained
throughout
takeoff and climb.
P 10. Complies with noise abatement requirements of airport.
P 11. Completes appropriate checklist.
EX Conditions, mud/snow over area, rolling lift off at Vso, stay
in ground effect, Vy, climb, flaps up, alignment.
C H E C K L I S T, configuration, yoke full back, high pitch
attitude, keep aircraft rolling from run up, at lift off stay
within half wing span of ground until Vy =10/-5 knots, climbs
at Vy =10/-5 knots before reconfiguration, climb Vy. Trim, alignment,
post-takeoff C H E C K L I S T
Initial assumption is that the field is of unlimited length.
From run up to lift off, surface is such that main wheels are
getting great resistance. Yoke is held to keep nose wheel off
ground as much as possible because of simulated surface conditions.
Pitch attitude is held that will get airplane airborne at the
slowest possible speed. Once off, the nose is lowered very slowly
at first to stay within ground effect. In ground effect the plane
can achieve its best acceleration to Vy. Once Vy is obtained
climb is initiated and reconfiguration takes place. .
Common mistakes are failing to put in required flaps, not holding
yoke all the way back while taxiing on to runway, not keeping
plane moving, excessive braking, failure to keep sufficient pitch
attitude, letting aircraft settle to ground after initial liftoff,
failing to stay close enough to ground to remaining ground effect,
trimming for climb and then
forgetting to raise flaps.
See instructional material on soft field takeoff.
D. Task:
SOFT-FIELD APPROACH AND LANDING:
REFERENCES; AC 61-21, Handbook, Manual
P 1. Know requirements of soft-field operations as to aircraft
capability and runway conditions.
2. Selects touchdown point based on aircraft/pilot capabilities,
wind, surface and obstructions.
P 3. Uses POH Vref configuration, speed, pitch attitude and power.
P 4. Uses stabilized approach at Vref (POH gross speed adjusted
for reduced weight) No faster than 1.3 Vso +10/-5 knots + gust
factor.
P 5. Uses crosswind correction and directional control throughout
the approach and landing. (PTS has this out of sequence)
P 6. uses only smooth, timely, proper control use during roundout
and touchdown.
P 7. Smooth touchdown without drift and aligned with and other
centerline of runway.
P 8. Uses proper configuration, control position and speed to
keep movement until reaching firm surface.
P 9. Completes the appropriate checklist.
EX Able to explain how the approach and landing at a soft field
is both Similar and different from a normal landing Able to discuss
how the configuration of the aircraft at touchdown minimizes
the effect of a soft surface.
Establishes and maintains stabilized approach for conditions,
smooth appropriate control input throughout, no drift to either
side. To demonstrate the approach to and a soft field landing.
To maintain approach speed within +10/-5 knots. There is NO mention
of an accuracy requirement. Earlier PTS guides indicated a field
of unlimited length. Although this is written at the beginning
of 1998, you will be well advised to weight this information
against any later editions of the PTS.
The soft field approach is identical to normal until the flare.
It is important to visualize the situation in which you have
a field of unlimited length but of such softness that if the
nose wheel should touch the ground it will dig in and flip the
plane on its back. It is up to the pilot to make ground contact
with the nose attitude and power application such that a nose
over cannot occur.
The arrival at flare is with 1500 RPM, 60 knots, and full
flaps. During the flare the nose pitch is smoothly increased
while power is smoothly reduced to prevent ballooning. At the
point of maximum pitch the power is increased to at least 1300.
In this configuration and attitude ground contact should occur.
Hold the yoke all the way back and up. If flaps are raised immediately
the nose will remain pitched up longer. Power may be added to
keep the nose wheel off the ground during taxi. Brownie points
for clearing the runway without the nose wheel touching.
An alternative method of making a soft field landing is to leave
the power at 1500 throughout the approach and actual landing.
Smooth, controlled use of the yoke can allow the actual touchdown
to occur in a very nose high attitude. Removal of flaps will
increase the nose angle after touchdown. To make a good landing,
you have to do your best to keep the plane from landing. The
ideal situation is to run out of airspeed and altitude at the
same moment.
See instructional material on soft field landings.
E. Task:
SHORT-FIELD TAKEOFF AND CLIMB
REFERENCES: AC 61-21; Airplane Handbook and Flight Manual
P 1. Knows elements of short-field procedures. Can discuss the
takeoff situation and aircraft performance required for a particular
situation.
2. Knows and sets configuration and controls for wind and flaps
according to POH.
P 3. Clears the area; taxies to takeoff position to use maximum
length of runway in alignment with the centerline. (In the REAL
world, there may be some advantage to getting maximum diagonal
across the runway to take advantage of any available headwind
component.)
P 4. Advances throttle smoothly to takeoff power.
P 5. Rotates at POH suggested speed, lifts off and climbs at
Vref for POH obstacle clearance seed or Vx.
P 6. Sets pitch for obstacle clearance airspeed or Vx, and maintains
speed +10/-5 knots, until obstacle is cleared, or until 50' above
the takeoff surface.
P 7. Passing the obstacle pitch and speed is changed to Vy or
Vref during remainder of climb at +10/-5 knots.
P 8. Retracts gear and flaps as suggested by POH.
P 9. Takeoff power is held until safe altitude is reached.
P 10. Maintains directional control and proper wind drift throughout
the procedure.
P 11. Complies with noise abatements procedures.
P 12. completes the appropriate checklist.
EX C H E C K L I S T , configuration,
rolling or locked brake start,
Conditions, 50' FAA tree, maximum acceleration with minimum drag,
rotate just before Vx, climb at Vx to 50' to clear obstacle,
Vy for best rate, alignment.
The C-150 does not use any flaps for the short field takeoff.
The short field presumes a 50' obstacle which need to be cleared
on takeoff. The manual gives ground run and distance needed to
clear at differing conditions such as altitude and aircraft weight.
No measurable differences have been found between a rolling departure
and a locked braked departure. Both require that the maximum
available runway be used. With the locked brake system, full
power is applied before the brakes are released. The yoke is
held so that the least aerodynamic drag is produced without producing
excess nose wheel pressure. Rotate slightly before Vx and establish
Vx immediately since this the best climb for distance covered.
A count of 10 (seconds) is sufficient to gain 50' and clear the
obstacle. If the aircraft is light a slightly lower Vx exists.
If you plan to fly at a slower than gross weight Vx be sure to
advise the examiner. The test does not allow for any climb below
Vx speed. Once the obstacle is cleared accelerate to Vy. Use
the manual to determine the proper configuration.
Common mistakes are failure to configure the aircraft before
takeoff, not using full length of runway, rotating too soon,
climbing at below Vx, waiting too long to accelerate to Vy, and
failing to reconfigure aircraft.
See instructional material on takeoff/landing.
D. Task:
SHORT-FIELD APPROACH AND ACCURACY LANDING:
REFERENCES: AC 61-21, Handbook, Manual
P 1. Knows requirements and procedures for short-field operations.
P 2. Knows how wind, landing surface, and obstructions determine
the location of the best touchdown point.
P 3. Uses POH approach and landing configuration with pitch,
airspeed and power as recommended.
P 4. Uses stabilized approach at +10/-5 knots of 1.3 Vso or Vref
+ gust factor as required.
P 5. Flies with smooth accurate control input during roundout
and touchdown.
P 6. Touches down at stalling speed within 200' beyond selected
point. Allows no drift and airplane is aligned with and over
runway centerline.
P 7. Uses brakes as needed to stop quickly and safely.
P 8. Corrects for crosswind and maintains directional control
throughout the approach and landing.
P 9. Completes the appropriate checklist.
EX Able to explain how the approach and landing is both similar
and yet different from a normal landing. Able to discuss and
diagram the effect of increased flaps and slower airspeed on
the glide path and ground contact.
The applicant and examiner should discuss the performance requirements
of the aircraft. These figures (Known by the applicant ahead
of time) are then used to determine the desired touchdown point
and aircraft stopping distance Vs obstruction clearance and runway
available. The examiner may simulated a shortened runway by requiring
a intersection turn off.
The short field landing differs from a normal one only during
final approach and landing. On final, after full flaps, the approach
speed is lowered at least 5 knots by raising the nose. TRIM.
The slower speed will actually increase the angle of descent
by shortening the ground covered. Once the approach speed and
glide angle is established, adjustments are made with power.
Ideally, as with any landing every yoke movement should be back
and every power change a reduction. Aim short of your selected
touchdown because even an approach 10 knots slow has some float
left in it. Catch the center line for bonus points.
At touchdown, power off, flaps up and brakes. Don't over do the
brakes because it is hard on the plane. Discuss this with examiner
beforehand.
See instructional material on short field landings
.
Special
Landing Situations
P To demonstrate no flap landing and the short approach,
EX To explain why the no flap landing is not preferred. To explain
why the short approach is both a pilot and controller option.
The no flap landing is now a part of the Practical Test Standards
requirement. The pattern entry and turn to downwind is as with
the other landings. At the numbers the power is reduced to 1500
and the aircraft trimmed for 60 Kts. Since no flaps are to be
used, the 60 kts glide angle will be relatively flat. The flat
glide angle greatly increases the aiming difficulty. A power-off
slip can be used to correct if you are high. Being low requires
full power.
Common fault to no flap landings is failure to recognize being
high or low until too late. Any excess speed greatly increases
the aircraft's float during the roundout and flare. Be patient.
Do not make any abrupt power or yoke changes. The hazard with
being low in a no flap situation is that the decelerating approach
may occur. This is caused when a power increase is allowed to
raise the aircraft nose. This results in a decrease in airspeed.
The decrease in airspeed will, after a momentary pause, cause
the aircraft to descend at a steeper angle. Any power increase
must be accompanied by forward yoke pressure (or trim) sufficient
to maintain the 60 kt approach speed. The decelerating approach
is deceptive both as to its causes and onset. It is most likely
to occur in a no flap approach because of errors in selection
of the glide angle.
The short approach is another landing procedure which serves
a traffic control function. An aircraft on downwind may be posing
a potential conflict with an aircraft on two mile final. The
Tower requests/directs the downwind aircraft of make a short
approach.
At the numbers the pilot will make a normal power reduction to
1500 or to off. Holding heading and altitude momentarily until
speed decreases to the white arc, full flaps are applied. A descending
turn is initiated directly to the final approach course. In a
C-150 very little trim will be required to stabilize at 60 kts.
The less power the shorter the approach.
G. Task:
FORWARD SLIPS TO A LANDING
REFERENCE: AC 61-21
P 1. Knows aspects of slips, aircraft limitations, side Vs forward,
and recovery.
P 2. Considers wind direction and velocity as an item of slip
ability and effectiveness as an altitude and direction control.
Uses this skills to clear obstructions and select touchdown point.
P 3. Able to demonstrate a forward slip in a landing situation.
To use the slip to lose altitude and acquire the landing approach
glide path and touchdown point.
P 4. Maintains runway alignment with centerline and airspeed
what will minimize float.
P 5. Makes smooth recovery from the slip with correct control
sequence and application and then enters the roundout and touchdown.
P 6. Touches down smoothly at approximate stall at or within
400' beyond a specified point, with no side drift while aligned
with runway center line.
P 7. Maintains crosswind correction and directional control throughout
the approach and landing.
P 8. completes the appropriate checklist.
EX Be able to explain the forward slip entry and recovery. Discuss
the circumstances where a forward slip might be required and
how indicated airspeed is affected.
A slip is a cross control maneuver with power off and at relatively
slow indicated speeds. The location of the static air intake
will influence the indicated speed. The forward slip uses the
side of the aircraft as a air brake which will cause controlled
loss of altitude over a minimum ground distance. With the advent
of flaps the skill of slipping became less important.
The C-150 and some other models have manuals that prohibit slips
with flaps. It is possible for the disrupted air flow to blank
out the elevator and cause the nose to pitch straight down. A
forward slip should be performed with power off. To do otherwise
defeats the purpose of losing altitude. The amount of rudder
effectiveness available is the determining factor in how efficient
the slip will be in losing altitude. A slip is most effective
into the wind. A turn can be made while in a slip. The kinesthetic
feel of a slip is initially very uncomfortable but grows on you
with experience.
The initiation of the forward slip requires Carb Heat, power
off, trim as desired for about 60 knots, turn the nose of the
aircraft to a 20/30 degree angle from the desired flight path
and punch in full opposite rudder as you lower the leading wing.
As with all slips, the change in static air will make necessary
forward yoke pressure to maintain the same indicated speed. The
ratio of altitude loss to ground covered will be determined by
wind, airspeed, rudder, braking effect of fuselage, and skill.
In a strong wind a near vertical drop can be achieved. With a
little practice the slip becomes a very controllable maneuver.
Until skilled in slips it is best not to hold the slip too close
to the ground before initiating recovery. The recovery from a
slip is accomplished by relaxing rudder pressure and resuming
coordinated flight. Practice in slip recovery should occur at
200' initially. Lower recoveries can be made as proficiency rises.
Since this aspect of the flight test includes a landing, you
should expect to make a no flap landing. This means that you
can expect considerable float to occur even at 60 knots. If you
are using a long runway, advise the examiner that your planned
touch down point is well down the runway such as the second intersection.
On a short runway it will be necessary to roundout and flare
well before reaching the runway. Remember the main purpose of
flaps is to avoid just this problem.
Forward slip is part of Private Pilot practical test.
C. Task:
GO-AROUND
REFERENCES: AC 61-21, Handbook, Manual
P 1. Knows element and sequence required of go-around including
those circumstances where a go-around might not be possible.
P 2. To properly decide on a go-around when situation requires
without examiner prompting.
P 3. Uses full power, removes to partial flaps and sets pitch
for climb at Vy +10/-5 knots.
P 4. Retract the flaps to approach (?) setting if applicable.
P 5. Retracts the gear after positive rate of climb is established.
P 6. Keeps takeoff power until at safe altitude and then power
adjusted as appropriate for pattern.
P 7. Maintains directional control and proper wind drift correction
during climb. Will smoothly and correctly control the flight
path while cleaning up and initiating climb. Use of trim specifically
mentioned.
P 8. complies with noise abatement procedures, as appropriate.
P 9. Flies the appropriate traffic pattern.
P 10. Completes the appropriate checklist.
EX Be able to explain the go-around procedure, possible causes,
possible hazards, and the decision making judgments required.
Do not wait for the examiner to advise on a go-around. If the
situation calls for a go-around, you exercise your judgment.
Your ability to make decisions related to flight situations is
a major part of the test. The second facet is to execute smoothly
and safely.
The go-around decision should be automatic if touchdown cannot
be accomplished within the first third of a runway. Another aircraft
not clearing the runway calls for a go-around. ATC can also call
for a go-around. Go and then ask why. It is better to execute
your go around from a higher altitude than a very low one because
the technique within a few feet of the runway is different and
requires more precision. You should be able to execute the go-around
while keeping your eyes outside the cockpit.
At a 60 knot approach speed, the normal go-around is executed
by applying full power, this includes Carb Heat, yoke held locked
forward, rudder, bringing up flaps to at least 20 degrees, getting
climb speed and bringing up all flaps while climbing at 65 knots
or best rate. Trim.
At less than 60 knots at the time the go-around is initiated
requires more care. At application of power do not let the airplane
climb. Hold level as you milk up the flaps. At these low speeds
anticipate with plenty of rudder at power application. Do not
initiate a climb until accelerating into 65 knots. Trim. Whenever
the go-around is executed in ground effect the effort to hold
level requires more attention.
The most common errors of the go-around are to allow the application
of power to swing the nose and lower the airspeed. If another
aircraft is on or over the runway swing to the right side for
clearance. Hesitation is perhaps the greatest cause of go-around
accidents.
See instructional material on go-around and landings.
V. AREA OF OPERATION
PERFORMANCE MANEUVER
A. Task:
STEEP(CONSTANT ALTITUDE) TURNS
REFERENCES: AC 61-21
P 1. Knows requirements for making steep turns such as above
1500' AGL, Va entry maximum, in either direction and recovery
techniques.
P 2. Performance altitude to be above 1500' minimum descent altitude.
P 3. Uses Va or POH entry speed for aircraft used.
P 4. Divided attention while rolling into a coordinated 360 degree;
turn; maintains a 45 degree; +5-degrees; and rolls out on the
entry heading, + 10 degrees.
P 5. Performs the task in the opposite direction, as specified
by the examiner.
P 6. Makes a smooth (quick) entry while holding yoke pressure
required while dividing attention between control and orientation.
P 7. Keeps altitude within 100' and + 10 knots.
EX Explain the aerodynamics and G-force factors of a 45-degree
bank as opposed to greater or less steep banks. Discuss the function
of power, speed, and rate of turn. Va or recommended entry speed,
a 360 turns, rolls out with 10 degrees of initial heading, +5
degrees of bank, +100 feet of altitude, and +10 knots, does both
left and right turns
The technique for making steep turns is different only to the
extent that anticipation is the essential element. The entry
should not be made gradually but, rather, quickly and smoothly.
By locking the elbow on the door when applying back pressure
you can fix the nose attitude and bank. If you leave your arm
hanging and unlocked you are likely to inadvertently change pressure
or bank. Doing these together in a quick and smooth sequence
allows you to enter and stabilize the bank and altitude.
The bank is entered at cruise power. Lead any steep turn to the
right with plenty of rudder. A steep bank entered at less than
cruise power requires ever greater pressure and bank input. Two
full down turns of trim will normally release most of the yoke
pressure required in a 45 degree bank. Trim must be taken out
when leveling off wings for recover. Because of the back pressure
held in the turn a very positive forward pressure must be exerted
when leveling off to prevent an altitude pop-up.
A 180 or 360 degree steep turn is relatively easy to achieve
within the altitude parameters. However, once you are beyond
360 degrees at the same altitude your own wake turbulence becomes
a factor. Beyond 360 you will hit your own wake as proof of correct
performance. In the realm past the 360 you are most likely to
have altitude problems. By holding the bank at 45 degrees the
locked elbow pressure is constant. In the event you hit your
own wake be sure to hold or slightly increase back pressure since
the turbulence usually causes some altitude loss. It is best
to correct slight changes in altitude by increasing or decreasing
the bank by 5 degrees rather than by making yoke attitude changes.
Once the bank and altitude are established the horizon and sound
become essential. Keep your eyes flicking from horizon to attitude
indicator to heading indicator. Lead the turn roll-out by half
the angle of bank and forward on the yoke. A common fault as
roll-out time nears is to gradually shallow the bank with a resulting
increase in altitude. Don't forget the rudder.
The 720 degree turn is not required for the test but being able
to do it correctly makes the 180 and 360 seem that much more
easy. Practicing steep turns at less than cruise power will improve
the anticipation and yoke skills required in the maneuver. Also,
the acceleration stall from this configuration is different and
should be experienced.
The acceleration stall is not on the present flight test. The
acceleration stall is normally experienced when the aircraft
is in a steep turn at such a pitch attitude and power that altitude
cannot be maintained. The bank adds a load factor that causes
the aircraft to stall at a higher than normal speed. This is
the only stall where just leveling the wings with aileron will
initiate recovery
.
See instructional material on steep turns.
Descending
turns (was part of test, now in commercial)
P 1. Knows that spirals over a point require constant adjustment
of bank to correct for wind and wind angle while speed is constant.
P 2. Trims, uses power, adjusts bank for wind.
P 3. Initiates a spiral descent within 10 knots of a given airspeed.
To remain over the area in a constant radius spiral with no bank
exceeding 40-degrees.
P 4. To maintain orientation while conducting emergency procedures.
EX Explain the situation as over a potential landing area at
several thousand feet and engine failure occurs. Discuss the
necessity for remaining over the area while making descending
turns. This requires variations in bank to compensate for wind
direction and velocity.
This is perhaps the least practiced and most difficult procedure
in the old flight test. The required division of attention between
flying, orientation, checklist items, and radio/transponder can
be overwhelming unless practiced. The pilot must be aware of
the wind direction prior to initiation. As an EMERGENCY you must
use your checklist. Make sure that you and the examiner have
the same field in mind. At power reduction (engine failure) fly
into the wind if known and trim down 5 times for 60 knots, or
as directed. Use shallow banks and make reasonably wide circles.
The most common fault is staying too close and making overly
steep banks with accompanying high airspeeds. Unless otherwise
directed, make your turns to the left for greater visibility.
Remember as you descend the wind velocity is likely to decrease.
As you get lower the normal tendency is to make your circles
smaller, don't. Tighter circles lead to higher airspeeds. Just
pulling back on the yoke to reduce a higher airspeed will tighten
the turn. Keep the bank shallow. Try to plan your final turn
to be a downwind leg abeam the imaginary numbers of the field.
Throughout the procedure you should be using your emergency checklist.
It doesn't hurt to tell the examiner the what and why of what
you are doing. Don't put in flaps until the field is certain
to be made. In an actual situation, you can stop a wind milling
propeller by entering an imminent stall. This can improve your
glide ratio by up to 20 %. Leveling the prop with the starter
will minimize damage. In an ADF equipped aircraft a descent over
a radio station is a good practice exercise. Try 990 at Collinsville.
VI. AREA OF OPERATION
GROUND REFERENCE MANEUVERS
Ground reference between 800 and 1000 feet with plus or minus
100 feet of selected altitude and plus or minimums 10 knots of
desired airspeed.
A. Task:
RECTANGULAR COURSE
REFERENCE: AC 61-21
The new procedure has to do with entry and exit. They are both
now required to be at 45-degrees to the downwind. The exit will
be as though departing the runway on a 45-degrees standard departure.
The reversal requires you to fly to the other side and enter
on the 45 to the downwind or devise your own way which may well
be better.
P 1. Knows elements of divided attention, wind correction, control,
and anticipation required to maintain ground track when entering
and flying a rectangular course.
P 2. Knows problems of course selection, wind direction and velocity,
steepest bank angle, and crab angles required.
P 3. Selects ground reference area to fly pattern and still have
an emergency landing area always available.
P 4. Enters 45 to downwind for left turns, at selected pattern
altitude + 100' and + 10 knots, with wind corrections for constant
ground track, No bank to exceed 45 degrees. A course reversal
may be required.
P 5. Uses wind drift correction during all straight-and turning
flight to maintain a constant distance ground track around the
rectangular reference area. Obeys FAR's and potential noise disturbance
problems. Will fly a uniform course distance out side the rectangle.
P 6. Divides attention between control and ground track while
maintaining ground track.
P 7. Exits at the point of entry at the same altitude and airspeed
at which the maneuver was started. Reverses course as directed
by examiner.
P 8. maintains altitude +100' and airspeed + 10 knots
.
EX Explain the relationship of a rectangular course to an actual
airport pattern. Show by diagram how a given wind direction will
require certain aircraft headings, banks, and turns to produce
a desired ground track. Show how this differs from a calm wind
situation and how flying in the opposite direction changes things.
First pattern with 45-degrees steepest turns to left, + 100 feet
and +10 knots
Half of the battle is to select a large enough rectangle with
the long side at right angles to the wind. Of course, you always
know the wind direction. Always chose as low an altitude as you
and the examiner will be comfortable with. The lower altitude
is easier to fly but errors become more obvious. A small field
or one with a quartering wind just creates problems. Select left
turns unless directed otherwise. By making your first entry downwind,
the wind behind you, you make your first turn your steepest and
more than 90 degrees. This is because the wind has added to your
ground speed and the required crosswind crab angle. The stronger
the wind the steeper turn required and the greater the crab.
An alternative to the steeper turn is to begin the turn earlier.
One way to keep the course distance constant is to put a reference
mark on the side window. While flying the course pick points
along the course which will help you maintain your distance.
By having a wind at right angles your upwind and downwind legs
will not require a crab angle. Up wind turns will be relatively
shallow and less than 90 degrees. The common fault on the last
upwind turn is to do it so soon that your crosswind course is
too close to the rectangle.
If you have never made a course reversal while doing ground reference
be sure to practice one before the flight test. The course reversal
allows you to proceed directly from left hand turns to right
hand turns around a course with minimum maneuvering. It is best
initiated on the upwind leg. Fly for one minute past the last
upwind corner. Initiate a 30 degree 90 degree turn either left
or right, immediately followed by an opposite hand 270 degree
turn. If the banks are all 30 degrees and smoothly performed
you will be on the reciprocal course and track from your entry.
See instructional material on ground reference and course reversals.
B. TASK:
S-TURNS
REFERENCE: AC 61-21
P 1. Knows the references used to perform S-turns.
P 2. Determines wind direction and velocity.
P 3. Selects area with reference to FARs, noise abatement and
emergency landing possibility.
P 4. Plans the maneuver so as to enter in left turns (This means
you must start at the right end of the line)at 600 to 1000' AGL.
Enters perpendicular to the reference line. Uses line at 90 degrees
to the wind.
P 5. Enters downwind at pattern altitude making constant radius
half- circle turns by correcting for wind drift.
P 6. Divides attention between control and ground track while
maintaining coordinated flight.
P 7. Makes course reversal by performing complete circle and
performs in S-turns right turns. Exits at the point of entry
at the same altitude and speed at which the maneuver was started.
P 8. Maintains altitude, + 100' and speed, + 10 knots.
EX Able to explain the flight elements required for S-turns across
a road. Discuss the wind-drift factors as they influence the
upwind and downwind sides of the S. First turn to left at 600
to 1000 feet AGL, +100 feet and +10 knots
As with rectangles, the correct selection of line and 90 degree
wind is important. Entry is made downwind. You should fully understand
that this maneuver is the direct descendent of turns about a
point from both left and right turns. The only added element
is the bank reversal as you cross the reference line. The reversed
bank will be the same angle as the entry bank.
As you cross the reference line look down the wing and select
a point that is the other end point of the diameter. Keeping
that point in mind and view, select other points around the semicircle
arc. Fly the points to make the arc. Try to time the turn and
arc so that your wings are coming level as you cross the reference
line. Remember that the downwind turns will be steeper and the
upwind turns more shallow. A common fault is failing to make
the upwind semi circle large enough and letting the wind make
the downwind semicircle too large. If you carefully select points
along the reference line and points along the arcs as you fly
it becomes easier. Don't try to fake the turns by excess rudder.
Stay coordinated. As you reverse your banks watch out for altitude
pop up. Anticipate with forward yoke pressure.
The bank angle used in the S-turn upon arrival to the bisecting
line is opposite angle to use on passing the line. The reversal
of these banks is training in pitch control and bank control
with reference to the requirements of ground reference S-turns
that exists in no other ground reference maneuvers.
If ever you have the opportunity, watch for a freight train along
a straight stretch. S-turns over the engine or caboose as it
proceeds will give you identically sized turns.
C. Task:
TURNS AROUND A POINT
REFERENCE: AC 61-21
P 1. Can discuss elements related to turns about a point.
P 2. Determines wind direction and velocity.
P 3. Selects point referenced to FAR clearances, altitudes, landing
options.
P 4. Plans the maneuver so as to enter at 600' to 1000' AGL,
at an appropriate distance from the reference point. Entry is
made headed downwind in left turns. Tracks constant radius left
turns for two full circles, 45-degrees; maximum bank,
P 5. Applies required wind-drift correction to track a constant
radius circle around the reference point with steepest bank not
to exceed 45-degrees.
P 6. Divides attention between control and ground track while
maintaining coordinated flight.
P 7. Completes two turns, exits at the point of entry at the
same altitude and airspeed at which the maneuver was started
and reverses course as directed by examiner.
P 8. Maintains altitude, + 100' and speed, + 10 knots.
EX Best to explain by a diagram or circle on ground. Draw circle,
put in wind arrow and divide circle into quadrants. Put in aircraft
at cardinal points to show where different degrees of bank are
required and where crab angle is required. It might be well to
discuss what circle will look like if improperly performed. 600
to 1000 feet, approximate 45 degree banks within 100 feet and
10 knots. Completes two turns and exits at point of entry, reverses
course as directed to perform in other direction.
Chose a single point that has a number of identifiable points
in an arc around it. Enter downwind and abeam the point initiate
your steepest bank. Fly to the points that constitute the arc.
With coordinated rudder vary your bank as required. In a strong
wind your wings may be level upwind. Depending on altitude and
radius of the circle you may lose sight of the point. Briefly
raise your wing as required to achieve your orientation. Most
common error is making an e-g-g in a strong wind and making the
circle too small. The course reversal is performed as before.
Right turns are more difficult only because of the greater need
to keep oriented. Don't hesitate to raise the wing briefly. You
will probably do better if you select the point than if it is
done by the examiner. At an unfamiliar point he won't be able
to detect minor errors as well as if he were familiar.
What is being suggested is that you pick an object or point as
the visual center of your maneuver. Now select a series of visual
points that can be used as points on the circumference of your
circle. A brown spot, bend in a ditch, green
clump, bush, etc. This technique is a way to initially
learn the process.
Your first attempts are best done in calm winds just to get the feel of it. Later go out in the strongest winds available. If you are having difficulty fly appropriate airport patterns in varied winds, you should go back to ground reference work to refine your ground reference skills.
Your ground reference experience in strong winds will determine how successful your strong-wind patterns will be. This must precede your strong wind-landings. It helps to think through what headings will give you the desired ground track, draw the pattern to be flown with a wind arrow and draw the T (airplane) to show where it must point. Strong wind patterns will NOT be rectangular no matter what the airport diagram shows. If you begin having trouble with strong wind patterns, the place to begin your corrective training is reviewing your ground reference skills.
Turns
about a Point
--Enter on the downwind
--Estimate the radius
--Estimate the bank
--Estimate the wind correction angle.
Alternate Method (non-standard)
--Enter of direct crosswind
--Set initial crab correction abeam center point
--All other corrections will be less.
--Perform rest as though a turn on a point.
A turn on a point is a commercial maneuver. It might be demonstrated
to a student as a comparatively more difficult way of going around
a point. I have read of instructors teaching this before the
easier 'turn about a point'. I question this method. A turn on
a point requires a constant ground speed. This speed can only
be obtained by changing altitude as the wind affects your ground
speed. In a C-150 at cruise this altitude is about 720' and will
vary for every speed that is faster or slower. To keep the wing
on the point you must make ever-so-slight changes in altitude
so that your wing stays on the point. Should the point move ahead
of your wing you must speed up by losing altitude. Should the
point move behind the wing you should slow down by increasing
your altitude. These altitude changes should be done smoothly
and altitude changes will be determined by the speed differential
between the head and tail wind you encounter.
Student
Question
Q: On a recent flight to an unfamiliar airport, I noticed a sign
along the runway with the number four on it. Farther down the
runway was another sign with the number three on it, and then
one with the number two on it, and then the last sign had the
number one on it. These signs had white numbers with a black
background. What do they mean?
A: These signs are runway distance remaining signs. They are
described in Chapter 2 of the "Aeronautical Information
Manual" as "having a black background with a white
numeral inscription and may be installed along one or both side(s)
of the runway. The numbers on the signs indicate the distance
(in thousands of feet) of landing runway remaining. The last
sign, the sign with the numeral one, will be located at least
950 feet from the runway end."
2003 Taxiing Changes
Go to: http://www.airweb.faa.gov/rgl
Click on "Advisory Circulars" # 91-73A
My impression as to the organization and layout of this AC is the story of the
seven blind men who identified an elephant by touch. I tried to organize and
simplify the AC for student use but it refuses to either simplify or untangle.
BACKGROUND
--Airports are getting more complex.
--Taxiing should be a part of the overall flight-training program
--Standard Operating Procedures are necessary in all parts of PTS.
--The solution lies in training, planning, coordination and communication
--Taxiing requires anticipation however, anticipation can cause problems
--Your expectations may be different from what you get from ATC.
--Study and learn the airport layouts you expect to use.
--Use a highlighter to mark the diagram-preferred routes to different runways
in different colors.
--There is no substitute for using an airport in many different ways every
time you taxi.
Situational Awareness
--Know where you are
--Locate where you want to go.
--Request your own selected route
--Compare with ATC selected route(s)
–Watch out for intersecting runways
--When runways are parallel, get a clearance for crossing each one.
--When in doubt stop, unless on a runway, get help by radio.
Alternative Taxiing Suggestions
--If different go to the suggestive assertiveness level
--Suggest a compromise of towing the plane part way.
--If you understand and can follow ATC’s route, ask for another way for
practice.
--Ask to cross an active runway twice, to and from.
--Try to confuse ATC by giving magnetic headings 180 off directions
--Complain about the absence of signage.
--Stop and ask that a truck be sent to guide you
--Ask that tower use signal light on taxiway lines for night assistance.
Runway Incursion Prevention
ASF RUNWAY SAFETY PROGRAM
Developed in conjunction with the FAA as part of its effort to reduce
runway incursions, the course is highly entertaining and informative.; Check
it out ( http://www.aopa.org/epilot/redir.cfm?adid=5009
). Successful completion of the program earns you credit in the FAA Wings
proficiency program.
Situational Awareness
–Location
--Weather
--Traffic
--ATC anticipation
--Other factors
Standard Operating Procedures (SOP)
--Taxi briefings with expectations and restrictions
--Analyze and seek clarification if needed
--Taxiing with "Sterile cockpit".
--Open airport diagram
--Navigation lights on when in motion
--Anticipate appropriate frequency from list
--Verify clearance of hold short or a crossing
--Prior to any crossing scan runways and approaches
--Readback clearance of hold short or a crossing
--No short cuts of identification or verbiage.
--Use your lights to help other aircraft and ATC
--Night and low visibility don’t compromise your safety.
--Position and hold at your own risk over one-minute. Get off the runway.
--Don’t wait for ATC to warn you of traffic behind. Go-around
--Use flashing lights to signal or warn other aircraft.
--Compare clearance and anticipated route with airport diagram
--Know your location and give it to ATC on initial call.
--Write-out non-standard or complex taxi instructions
--Turn on taxi light when moving and turn it off when stopped.
--Taxiway edge lights are blue, runway edge lights are white
--Do not taxi on runway centerline when taking a runway at night.
--When taxiing keep your head out of the cockpit, hold diagram UP
--All scanning should include visual and oral combination
--Do not touch volume control when monitoring a frequency
--If unsure of position advise ATC and ask for ‘progressive’ taxi.
--All ‘head’s-down’ activity should be done when stopped.
--Use your compass, heading indicator and heading bug in all taxiing
situations
--Listen to ATC and CTAF for any mention of the runway you intend to use.
--On the runway, you own it. Don’t let ATC hurry you off an exit.
AC
91-73A Checklists Annotated Condensed for General Aviation
Standard Operating Procedures Template
--Pilot in Command responsibility and accountability
--Use of technology
--Use of written taxi instructions
--Use of written taxi instructions for readback
--Use of standard phraseology
--Sterile cockpit when taxiing.
Checklist Procedures and Philosophy
–Format and terminology
–Do and verify
--Challenge and response
--Walk-around
Checklists Necessary
--Safety checks of area
--Beginning and sequence
--Before start
--After start
--Before taxi
--Taxi
--Run-up
--Before Takeoff
--Takeoff
--Climb
--Out of 1000'
--At altitude
–Descent
--Before Landing
--After landing and clearing runway
--Cleaning up and taxiing
--Parking and securing
--Emergency procedures
--Uncommon procedures
Communications
--Preparing frequency list
--Passenger briefing
--Procedure review and cross-check clearances
--Crossing or holding short of runway verification
--Taxi into position and hold
--Takeoff
--Land
Briefings
--Risk of CFIT
--Special airport limitations
--Special security limitations
--Density altitude considerations
--Before taxi
--Before takeoff
--Descent/approach/missed approach
Sterile Cockpit
--Exterior watch
--Transfer of control
Towered Taxi Procedures
Checklist
--Airport diagram in view
--Beacon
--Start checklist
Pre-Taxi
--Airport diagram
--Navigation lights
--(Night) taxi lights
--Clearance
Taxi
--Listen on frequency
--Call with position
--Readback
--Note intersections and runway crossings
--Runway crossing
--Visual clearing
--Radio confirmation
--Expedite crossing
--Park to clear approaches
At Active Runway
--Hold short of runway holding position markings.
--Tower frequency
--Takeoff clearance
Taking the Runway
--Takeoff restrictions readback if any
--Clear runway, intersections and departure end
--Strobes
--Lights
Towered Arrival Taxi
Procedures Checklist
In Range and Descent
--Airport Diagram
–Frequency sequence
–(Night) Lights
Exiting Runway
–Taxiing clearances/instructions
--Intersections crossing
--Runways crossing
Before Crossing a Runway
--Scanning Runway
–Clearing approach corridors
--Expedite crossing and taxi clear of hold bars
Parking
--Shutdown checklist
--Post flight checklist
Addendum:
--Airports are getting more complex.
--Taxiing should be a part of the overall flight-training program
--Standard Operating Procedures are necessary in all parts of PTS.
--The solution lies in training, planning, coordination and communication
--Taxiing requires anticipation however, anticipation can cause problems
--Your expectations may be different from what you get from ATC.
--Study and learn the airport layouts you expect to use.
--Use a highlighter to mark the diagram-preferred routes to different runways
in different colors.
--There is no substitute for using an airport in many different ways every
time you taxi.
Non-Towered
Departure Taxi Procedures Checklist
--Lights
--Announce taxi intentions
--360-degree turn to clear traffic
--Announce departure intentions
Non-Towered Arrival
Taxi Procedures Checklist
--Light
--Airport diagram
--Clearing runway call-up and taxi intentions
--Charts, manuals, equipment
Taxiing
--Contaminated runways
--Prevention of runway incursions
--Airport diagrams
--Complex intersections, construction and "hot spots".
Resource Management
--Weight and balance
--POH/FOM data and charts
--IFR procedures
--Approach briefing
--Selection
--Briefing
--Callouts
--Procedures
Go-around/ Missed
--Missing the gate
--Procedure
--Callouts
--Clean-up profile
Landing
--Briefing
--Callouts
–Configuration for conditions
–Short approaches
--Crosswinds
--Rejected landing
--Anticipation of exit route and procedure
For more on pavement markings, see
http://www.aopa.org/members/files/aim/chapter_2.html#2-3-1
Question: How hard would it be to put three digit magnetic
directions on taxiways and charts?
Emails with FAA Official;
----- Original Message -----
From: <Milton.Hill@faa.gov>
To: <gwhitt@ix.netcom.com>
Sent: Monday, May 24, 2004 12:45 PM
Subject: Interesting web site
It's a very informative web site. You are to be commended for your
efforts. What are you doing for a living these days?
Milton Hill Jr.,PHD.
Airworthiness Specialist
FAA Flight Technologies Requirements Branch
AFS-430
(202) 385 4575
Milton,
I teach flying and work on gathering more ideas for the teaching and
learning of flying.
Site is used as reference for AOPA CFI refreshers
Air Force uses it as a language reference for foreign pilots who are learning
English.
You are the kind of guy that I would like a couple of hits on.
1. Is there any reason the magnetic directions of taxiways could not be
painted on the taxiways as a aid to incursion problems?
2. On the internet the following was posted.
1800ANYAWOS and the station identifier gets you the weather at that station.
What it gets you to is porno. Should be stopped I checked on it shortly before
giving it to a 16-year old student.
Gene
Milton Hill Jr.,PHD.
Airworthiness Specialist
FAA Flight Technologies Requirements Branch
AFS-430
(202) 385 4575
Sorry Gene, there's not we can do about internet issues since they are not
regulated. However, caution is always advised when using the internet for any
purpose.
The following attached document relates the recommended practices to prevent
runway incursions and should be used by all pilots. The use of numbering
schemes on taxiways may be misleading to some pilots and may result in
additional concerns. (Gene’s emphasis)
(See attached file: runwayincursions1.doc)
Milton Hill Jr.,PHD.
Airworthiness Specialist
FAA Flight Technologies Requirements Branch
AFS-430
(202) 385 4575
"Gene Whitt"
<gwhitt@ix.netcom To: Milton Hill/AWA/FAA@FAA
.com> cc:
Subject: Re: Interesting web site
05/24/2004 06:16
PM
Milton,
I find your comment about my suggestion that taxiways have compass heading
numbers on them rather interesting, too. Included in your response was the
incursion piece that I am putting on my site.
A picture of a pilot using an airport taxi diagram appears with the following quote:
"The heading indicator is as useful on the ground as it is in the air. Use it together with the taxi chart to maintain orientation."
I hope to live long enough to have my name remembered with taxiway headings added on charts and the ground, as Whitt’s End additions.
My home field, CCR (Concord CA) has an experimental incursion location
warning system installed using the Marker Beacon frequency. It cost quite a bit
to install and is having operational difficulties. Not many pilots have their
marker volume up. My suggestion would do much more for much less. Good pilots do
set their HI prior to taxiing if only for yoke position in the wind.
Would it be possible to use your good services here to try my suggestion as
well?
Gene
Flying as Though You Lived Below
---In Switzerland airports diagrams route the pattern away from
individual homes.
---Avoid trailer parks and medical type areas
---Excess pattern altitude is not illegal.
---Overfly roads where possible
---Locally regulated pattern altitudes are minimums.
---Vary your ground reference practice areas to spread the noise
---Your flight will be quieter to your neighbors if you use all the first part
of runway and climb at Vy.
---Successful emergencies are usually measured in feet of distance and altitude.
---Understand that airports surrounded by houses will have noise sensors to
identify aircraft.
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