Page 6.21 (13,385+)
Instructors Learn, too
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Contents:
Instructor Notes; Instructor Ideas; ...Instructor
Factors; ...Preflight Discussion;
...Instructional Advice
From Over Thirty Years Ago; …Teaching
Precepts;
...Advice to Instructor; ... I am a Professional;...On Instruction; …
Instruction
as I Do It;... Departure Procedure;
…Post-flight Debriefing; …Area
Familiarization; ...The Cockpit; ...Introduction to the
Radio;...Pilot Errors 50 Years Ago; ...
Instruction
as an Accident Factor; ...Teaching
to a Higher Level; ...A Training Program; ...Major
CFI Applicant Problems Areas; ...Gaining Experience; ...Instructional
Sequence; …Age
as a Factor in Instruction, …Ouality
or Quantity; …Abnormal Situation
Training; ...Communication Mistakes
by Instructors; …Providing Experience
as Instructional Purpose; …A
Need to Understand; ...Teaching;
…CFI Hours; …Written
Post-Flight CFI Reports; ...Teaching to Be PIC; ...Instructional
Accidents; ...Liability
after an Accident is LIABILTY;
Instructor
Notes
--Instructors should be taught what constitutes proper instructional
conduct and behavior. First, do no harm, raise no fears, instill no faults
and kill no desires.
--Instructors should be taught that they bear responsibility
over life, as does a medical practitioner.
--An instructor who violates the NAFI code has a problem that
needs to be brought to his attention
--Refer your student to some of your former students.
--Instruction should not be based upon time, convenience or cost;
rather teach for safety and competence.
Instructor Ideas
www.beapilot.com or 888-beapilot CFI marketing package.
Instruction
--Airplanes are like horses and women, the lighter the touch
the better the performance.
Instructor
Factors ..................Facility Factors
Appearance and Experience..... Aircraft
Attitude ....................................Who's in charge
Communication skills ................Classrooms
Discipline ..................................Curriculum
Time in type of aircraft ...............Economics (Cost)
Pre and Post flight briefing......... Willing to counsel
Safety practice ..........................Interactive learning
Simulator availability ..................Policies of promptness
Availability .................................Specialization
Weather experience ...................Training aids
Pre-flight Discussion :
The maneuvers to be performed
The departure and arrival area/checkpoints
Radio procedure
Common errors to be expected and anticipated
How you can measure progress?
When is a 'mistake'?
Instructional Advice from Over 30-years Ago
The performance of any complex activity, such as flying an
airplane, requires the learning of highly conditioned responses.
Subject matter must be recalled instantly, and procedures must
be performed reflexively--without hesitation or dependence on
conscious thought. Consequently, good performance in complex
activity requires study and practice beyond conscious thought.
This study and practice is called 'overlearning', and is accomplished
by exercise, drill and repetition.
Instructors can make best use of the time spent in drill and
repetition learning activity by adhering to the following principles:
1. Prescribe practice which is objective and is practical in
application. Trimming.
2. Define the specific training objective. For landings the
stabilized approach.
3. Determine in preflight discussion that the learner has a thorough
understanding (insight) of the problem or task. Control position
while taxiing.
4. Emphasize the importance of accuracy and technique, and provide
the additional motivation to achieve it. Performing course reversals.
5. Provide guidance, which is neither too controlling, nor too
lax, and which permits experiencing what not to do, as well as
learning what to do. Radio procedures.
6. Emphasize relationships of parts and tasks. Teach trainees
when and how to expect transfer of skills learned in training
to good on-the-job performance. Dutch rolls.
7. Prepare the learner for variations, and what to do when variations
or changes require modification of procedure. Bring as many realistic
variations into the training as time and conditions permit. Left and
right patterns in crosswind instruction.
8. Be alert to recognize the problems and needs of individuals.
Regulate your methods and temp to the personality and learning
pattern of each student.
9. Remember that higher levels of learning (the ability to apply
and correlate) will aid the trainee in transferring knowledge
and training from one task to another.
10. Attitude flying and precision aircraft control (which requires
the understanding, crosscheck, and use of all flight
instruments) should be taught from the start of training to facilitate
transition to high performance aircraft and
instrument flight.
Canadian learning law #7 is called "Law of relationships
in which instruction is sequenced from the known to unknown,
simple to complex and easy to difficult.
--Really good pilots don't brag about it.
--A good pilot is most apt in a capacity to utilize cockpit resources.
Humor
If you expect to teach successfully you must incorporate humor
as the leavening to make your points rise properly. Learning
is fun in and of itself, a well placed remark or joke will serve
as a memory 'tag' to keep the learning point in place. Science
and technology will triumph over fear and superstition, God willing.
--Docendo Discimus...We learn by teaching. He who teaches learns twice. When by yourself,
you are the instructor.
--You don't know what you don't know. ..and what you don't know can
kill you.
--Much of what you think you know is incorrect. Misplaced assurance
causes accidents.
--Together, we must find out why you don't know what you don't
know.
--It is practice of the right kind that makes perfect.
--You will never do well if you stop doing better.
--Students never fail, only teachers do. The more I teach the more certain I
become| that this is a fundamental aspect of all education.
--A student's performance is not so much a reflection on the student,
as it is on the instructor's ability to teach.
--Learning is not a straight line up...let the teacher set the
standards of performance.
--Much of learning to fly is to unlearn preconceptions and habits.
--Unlearning is a very necessary and difficult part of learning
to fly.
--The way you are first taught and learn a procedure is the way
you will react in an emergency. It's important
to learn right the first time.
--You learn according to what you bring into the situation.
--Being prepared for a flight saves you money by saving time. Efficiency
is not a shortcut.
--Given the choice, make the safe decision. Surviving a mistake is an
invitation to do it again. Turn down the invitation.
--If you must make a mistake, make it a new one.
--One problem is a problem, two problems are a hazard; three problems
create accidents.
--It's great to be good; even better to be lucky.
--Trusting to luck alone is not conducive to an extended flying
career.
--We progress through repeated success; we learn through our mistakes.
--An instructors knowledge is proportional to the mistakes he's
made only once.
--My writings use the editorial "he" for convenience
not because of any sexism.
--However, left-handers have an advantage, they are in their right mind.
--Good habits deteriorate over time and bad habits take root.
--Accidents happen when you run out of experience.
Self instruction is the garden that raises bad habits.
Our failures teach us. If you want to increase your chances of
success, double your efforts.
... almost always. Nothing is always.
--Luck will do for skill, but not consistently.
--One should never underestimate the stimulation of eccentricity
in a teacher. It challenges the teacher, too,
when occurring in a student.
--The nice thing about a mistake is the pleasure it gives others.
--If you fly long enough the 'answer' is going to be "Carburetor
Heat".
--Never underestimate the stimulation of eccentricity.
--You're only young once, but you can be immature forever.
--Every day you fly you set a new record. You have never lived so long
before.
--Flying, like life, is full of precluded possibilities. Can't
do...won't do... shouldn't do...
--What you know is not as important as what you do with it.
--Legendary Lucille Ball gave this statement that very much applies
to flying, "Knowing what you can't do is more important
than knowing what you can do."
Advice to Instructor:
According to 61.23 (b) (5) an instructor does not need a medical
to instruct qualified and current private pilots, commercial
pilots or IFR pilots. However such an instructor cannot serve
as a safety pilot in any instance. Such an instructor can give
flight reviews if the pilot is still qualified and current. No
hood time can be given. No student pilot instruction can be given.
Go down to lost and found and get your memory every time you
have a senior moment.
As a teacher, I was not given to meaningless praise or reward.
As a flight instructor, I judge the lesson by knowledge applied,
improvement observed, and satisfaction achieved. The achievement
of normal expectations is viewed as acceptable but not deserving
of profuse adulation. Only when my retarded students did beyond
the usual were they praised. Praise, thus achieved value by not
being a throw-away for everyone. My gifted students were always
faced with ever higher expectations. My standards were once compared
with an ever extending extension ladder. One of my many weaknesses
as a flight instructor is an unwillingness to accept from a pilot
or a student less than their highest level of performance. Close
is accepted only when accompanied by significant improvement.
It is a poor student that does not exceed his teacher. Those who read this
material will someday come to regret that they did not make better use of
their ability and time. In my old age, I hurry more than ever before to
do the mundane. I need to garner more time to do more of value.
The instructor helps you teach yourself to fly. The instructor
tries to get inside your head. He wants to recognize your fears
and concerns. The instructor is trying to use what you know and
don't know to shorten the time and lower the cost of your learning
to fly. Good instructors like to teach. They will keep you from
getting hurt. You progress as you wander through all the mistakes that
every student pilot should make.
Once read, that every advance by mankind has been achieved by
laziness. I hate to see students preflighting inefficiently.
I believe that flying correctly is the easiest way to fly. Every
maneuver can be either easy or hard depending on how 'lazy' the
pilot has been in knowing how to make it 'easy'. I cringe when
a pilot works too hard at flying. Flying is easy only when it
is efficient and I don't mean using an autopilot.
I am a Professional
I am a professional teacher of flying. I was a professional teacher
for twenty years before I began teaching flying. I belong to
a professional flight instructor's organization and have for
as long as it has existed. I attend professional seminars, subscribe
to over a dozen different papers and periodicals related to better
instruction and safer flying. I spend hours a week in furthering
my own professional background. I am not trying to use instruction
as a 'stepping-stone' to another career.
Flight instruction is predominantly intellectual as is penmanship.
The mechanics of flying are not as important as the development
of knowledge, discipline, judgment, and discretion. Everything
I do is specific to the student. If a student fails to do well
it is my failure; not his. A good instructor will have several
ways to explain and teach a specific skill. What works for one
instructor and one student at a particular moment is unique to that
moment. I have never been able to teach any procedure, basic skill, or
idea twice in the same way with the same effectiveness. While I try to
become more effective and efficient in time and aircraft use, I can never
claim to have done any better just differently.
The uniqueness
of instruction and learning is such that it defies being canned or rote except
in the most simple of situations. The teacher never really knows if a
specific word or particular demonstration is truly sensed, learned, retained
or ignored. Repetition, review, demonstration and practice
compound. Still there are students who cannot prove comprehension or
demonstrate satisfactory performance. I have had more success than
failure but that too is just my opinion.
I only give flight instruction in those areas for which I am
trained, current, and qualified. I am dedicated to flying and
spend most of my time and energy working to improve myself when
I am not teaching. My major weakness is a lack of patience for
those who do not feel as I do.
On Instruction
I teach flying because I like to. It is not the flying I like
so much as the teaching. I love flying but most of all I love
to teach others to love flying. I intend to teach the love of
flying which only incidentally involves learning to fly. A student
can only love flying if it is a source of pleasure and satisfaction.
If, in the process of learning to perform the 'required' maneuvers
of flying, the love of flying is suppressed, then there is something
wrong with my instruction. I have failed my student and myself
if a given flight does not move toward the greater love of flying
for us both.
Objective: Plant the seed that grows into the love of flying.
Objective: Make flying performance a source of increased love
of flying.
Objective: The result of properly performed flying makes the
love of flying intense and more enjoyable.
Objective: Making use of flying to increase our love of other
things we do will increase the love of flying.
Objective: Out love of flying increases over time as our performance
and result improves.
Love will enable the student to do what needs to be done.
Love will provide the circumstances and means for a student to
keep on flying against all obstacles.
Love will keep you from ever feeling that you have enough improvement
or time in your flying.
Love IS the objective; flying is the pathway..
Instruction as
I Do It
The preflight instructional meeting between student and instructor
is the time to augment the learning sought, the orderly progression
of thought and procedure, and the communications involved. Every
flight should include both a planned emergency of sorts and an
unplanned (for the student) emergency. Acceptance of accountability
is essential for a successful learning experience.
An instructor is loaded with pearls of wisdom. Good instructors
share these pearls at every opportunity and even make opportunities
for sharing. A good instructor shows and tells a student how
to maintain control by letting the aircraft do as well as it
can without his help. Pilots who fly the plane without making
use of the aircraft's ability usually fly a pilot induced oscillation
route. Flying any airplane is easier and better if the pilot
understands how the aircraft engineers designed the inaction
of the structure and control authority.
A major factor in learning to fly well lies in learning the range
of performance capability possible in the aircraft and matching
that relatively wide range to the initial narrow range of performance
capability in the student pilot. The preflight presentation must
be designed so that the student is introduced to what will be
done in light of these ranges.
Airspeeds and changes in them are a good example of the varied
and conflicting performance capabilities that exist between planes
and student pilots. Aircraft have their speed ranges shown somewhat
on the airspeed indicator. The mid-ranges of the indicator are
those where the greatest 'safety' seem to exist.
Like a bicycle, once you get going, steering and control seem
relatively positive and certain. At the outer limits of the airspeed
indicator critical differences in what can go wrong appear. Initial
instruction occurs in the middle of the performance range. Then
gradually the outer-limits are explored.
With slow-flight as an illustration, an instructor may discuss
why slow-flight skills are a necessary part of learning to fly.
He may demonstrate slow-flight and recovery. Then talk a student
through the process. Slow-flight turns, climbs and descents come
later along with the use of flaps. Stalls and minimum controllable
soon follow. Where, previously, training existed in the mid-range
of aircraft performance and student capability, now we are exploring
the outer-limits of both aircraft and student capability.
You can phone ahead to your destination airport and get the ATIS. More and
more uncontrolled airports are getting ASOS and AWOS they are phone
accessible. Call the FSS and have them make the phone call for you. Pilots will need
to become proficient in selecting the 'preferred runway' using wind numbers
and pattern directions. You should have an AF/D with the numbers and
pattern info.. Knowing what to expect
is what makes radio work easy. Don't try to write everything
down. Get the essentials on paper and remember what you can of
the rest. I suggest that you use the back of your hand to write
the ATIS numbers on. Should you be fortunate enough to be left
handed it works best. Make a half-inch + sign on your hand and
write the essentials in each corner. Wind direction in one corner,
wind velocity in the next. Altimeter setting next and then runway
in use. At the top write the letter of the ATIS. If you think
of the vertical line as your runway, you can draw a / one way
or another to show about what crosswind you are expecting.
I insist that my students always copy the ATIS with the engine
running. There is nothing like having something costing you money
by the minute to focus your attention. Learn to play craps if you need this
point proven to you. Take pride in getting
it all in one full ATIS transmission. Being able to get it the
first time will save you time and money for the rest of your
flying life. The best proof of this axiom is learning to gamble. Of interest
is the item that smokers lose, on average, eleven percent more than
non-smokers when gambling. Poor judgment crosses all activity
boundaries. I have never taught a smoker to fly.
Many students constantly feel like there is something they are
forgetting to do. The first hours of flying are an overwhelming
experience. I always use a tape recorder for my students. They
provide the recorder and the tapes and all ground work is recorded
as well as all flight time. Students can then play the tape back
afterwards and have a better idea of what things went right as
well as what still needs work. The digital recorders have expanded the time and
versatility of recording your flight lessons. Cost is less since you
don't need tapes.
By now you should have noticed that about 90% of all radio procedures
are 'canned' ...always the same. The next time you are going
to fly between airports, take the time to write out word for
word what you are going to say and what you expect to have said
to you. Once you do this successfully you have the radio problem
licked. I have some examples under CCR on my web site.
Before I take a student up I go over everything we are going
to do. In teaching pattern work I draw on paper or using a line
of the tarmac as a runway with a pattern around it. At every
point of the pattern (walking) say out loud such things as hold
heading, airspeed and altitude. Pre-landing--(checklist on a
small card Velcroed to the yoke) Abeam the numbers, C.H. - power
- trim - airspeed - flaps... and so on. A student will seem to
be behind or pressed for time because he is not thinking ahead
at least steps in anticipation of what comes next. What you do
will soon become so automatic that you become over confident
and stop using the checklist. That's the time to be concerned.
When you think you think you know how to fly... be twice as careful.
The purpose of this meeting is to assemble all the information
into a meaningful and organized memory package. We want the student
to understand the safety concepts involved, aircraft performance
factors and especially the planning procedures for making a flight.
In the course of the presentation and afterwards give the student
an opportunity for input and questions.
Interesting that I have just read as the most effective method
to communicate at a table is when seated at 90 degrees. I have
always preferred this method in giving single student instruction
for fifty years. Nice to know an expert agrees with me. It is
most likely that if we are seated in a teaching-learning situation
we will be seated at 90 degrees.
I am presently teaching a student who flew eight hours out of
a Class C airport without being allowed to use the radio. I have
no idea as to what the instructor's concept of primacy, or sequential
building of radio procedures might be. The student has had to
work extra hard to overcome a training deficiency not of his
own making. Unlearning and overcoming of difficulties is so many
times more difficult for a student than being taught correctly
from the beginning. The previous instructor's teaching exacerbated
a student problem by ignoring its existence. Radio is a major
part of today's flying. Now, several years later, I feel that the next
giant step in aviation must be in letting airborne computers 'talk' to both
ground and space computers with lights or sounds to speed up the ATC
system. The technology exists but the 'system' will resist just as it
has resisted all other changes.
Radio, or any other ongoing aspect of flying, cannot be taught
in a massive sequence of material. The teaching of a skill must
be reduced to multiple bits (less than ten) of sequenced material.
Sequenced material can be more readily processed from short term
to long term memory. Even then a student must be allowed a time
to see the sequence and accept the logic of any order involved.
Many years ago I was told that a word must be used 32 times before
it can become a part of your useful vocabulary. A given sequence
of less than ten items must be utilized nearly ten times before
it is capable of useful retention. If a particular sequence cannot
be presented to this level, then it must be reinforced with additional
sessions even again and again. It is for this reason that learning
to fly needs to be concentrated into as little time as feasible.
Four or five flights a week can be justified if there is a logical
sequence and development in the lessons.
Without being fully aware of its over all significance I have
always emphasized reference points during air work flights. I
attempt to fly in different directions make different departures
and arrivals. Once we begin to fly between airports these previously
designated reference points become radio arrival call-up points.
Now in the twilight of my career I see that the efficiency and
order of my instruction has insured confidence and success in
my students. The reinforcement of previous learning has made
subsequent lessons more meaningful and successful.
An essential element of all my flight instruction has to do with
pilotage. We do not even look at a chart until my students have
made a solo flight to the four other nearby airports and back.
We have already been there two or three times on dual flights
to learn all the reporting points and radio procedures. With
this background diversions to airports and 'cow pasture international'
are relatively common events. Knowing where you are is a major
step in being able to use the radio properly. I want my students
to know where the nearest airport is and what it takes to get
to the best available runway with altitude available.
I hold my students accountable for learning assigned reading
and study material. I expect them to be familiar with applicable
student and flight FARs as well as standards of courtesy and
performance. I expect my students to participate in the planning
and measuring progress of the training program. I also expect
the student to be honest with me about his fears, concerns, and
any sense of not being prepared.
As the instructor I will attempt to keep the program on track
and efficiently organized for the least practical cost. I will
be honest with the student as to his abilities and potential.
I do believe that when a student fails to learn, I have failed
to teach. As an instructor I try to impart to the student what
he needs to know to a higher level than will be required in normal
operations. I will not deliberately try to impress the student
with what I know but I will keep trying to expand the student
knowledge base of the area. A pilots becomes unsafe if he does not have a
mental reserve sufficient to handle the unexpected.
It is not always easy to communicate effectively. Body language
makes a difference. If your attitude, body language, and demeanor
radiates confidence, a student is far more likely to be successful.
An instructor's selection of words, phrases and even topics are
significant in they way what is said will be received by the
student. MY problem is that my body is having difficulty moving
let alone talking.
Flight instruction and flying cannot just be centered in the
middle of the aircraft/student capability. Students need to be
exposed to their outer-limits to sensitize them for avoidance.
Students need to be made aware that the performance capability
of most aircraft greatly exceeds that of the student. The blending
of the two capabilities, student and aircraft is what flight
instruction is all about. This is a never ending teaching/learning
process.
The Departure
Procedure.
What effect will the weather have on the flight? The wind
direction makes a great difference for flights. Between airports
flights but not so much in airwork flights. The presence of clouds
and their location as well as altitude are teaching-learning
opportunities. Cloud clearance is easy to talk about but the
real learning can only take place through actual exposure.
Abnormal conditions are a part of flying and should be a part
of the instructional program. Any instructor or FBO that would
limit exposure of students to crosswinds of a six-knot maximum,
and there are those, is providing disservice instead of service.
Weather flying is opportunistic. When a weather learning experience
exists, the instructor should make the most of it.
The flight abortion procedure along with its call-outs are a
part of every departure. The reasons for aborting are varied
from airspeeds, controls, fire, or whatever. The procedure is
pre-planned as to call-out, responsibility, and performance sequence.
The immediate pre-takeoff checklist would include mixture, transponder,
lights, strobes, trim, flaps seats, belts, and doors. A brief
hold at the threshold can always be requested to confirm compass/HI
set, and brakes. Use a standardized method to confirm that every
necessary step has been completed. Be it flow, or finger-touch is not as
important as it being DONE.
Takeoff
The actual takeoff involves confirming an active airspeed indicator,
callout of rotation speed, positive climb, gear, and flaps. Post
takeoff call-outs should include reaching airport minimums, frequency
changes, headings, and altitude restrictions.
En route
Situational awareness is the game when en route. This means eyes
outside the cockpit. It also includes area familiarization. The
route of flight is covered along with primary visual identifier
points. During the flight additional points should be identified
as they affect future flights, safety options, and altitude. You must (should)
be aware of what you can see ahead and to the sides. Just as importantly
you should know what is out of sight below you, to the rear, and beyond the
horizon.
Once again the weather conditions function as a flight factor, the abnormal
weather, the winds are factored into the flight. Added in, however,
are deviations and a different selection of options covering the most routine
to the next emergency.
These items are all of the preflight briefing. However, when
things related to this briefing occur in the flight itself, they
are only discussed as part of the debriefing after the flight.
This post flight evaluation is to show how effective or ineffective
the preflight briefing was in anticipating events. The pilot who is not
two planning steps ahead of his present situation is 'behind' the aircraft.
Arrival
The preflight briefing is designed to help the instructor and
student to plan the arrival process as the conclusion of a series of other
planned events. The arrival consists of
several time spaced sequences. The student must be taught and
trained to anticipate the communication requirements of an airport
arrival. The distance from the destination is used as a basis
in which to plan the descent and do those things that can be
done ahead of time. The planning included positioning the aircraft for several
different runways. Only communicating with radio or ATIS will make the
preferred runway selection. The pilot still has the option to
suggest/request another runway. In strong winds do not hesitate to
request a taxiway if you feel that is a safer alternative. Been there;
done that.
Post-flight Debriefing
The post-flight debriefing begins as a self-evaluation by
both student and instructor as to why certain. operations were
less than successful or why some others went well. This final
process should emphasize the prevention of similar mistakes in
the future and the continuation of those elements that went well.
The entire preflight instructional meeting above has an advanced
parallel in the crew briefings associated with the airlines.
Self analysis
I tend to be, too, intense in my instruction. I want my students
to succeed, save money, and learn quickly. I love flying and
teaching it. I have difficulty accepting that others may have
other conflicting interests like jobs, vacations, and family.
I am constantly narrowing the student's perceptual field to flying
or a single aspect of it. Students, on the other hand, fail to
see that flying is not just the 'fun' of being in the air. Flying
is the homework, preparation, and required knowledge to make
the 'fun' safe. The best flight instruction takes place on the
ground, it is on the ground that you are exposed to the habit
of preparation that makes flying safe. Learn the habit of "What
if..." before you ever get into the plane. Murphy's Law
exists in flying as in everything else.
The teaching process requires that the performance objective
proposed to the student be explained, diagramed, and demonstrated.
I demonstrate those objectives that are difficult to explain.
I will create situations that are likely to be a part of the
students later experience such as all the things that can go
wrong during landings. In all maneuvers I will try to give the
student the cues to use. Not all are visual. Sound is a very
important first cue to changes in airspeed. The element of success
in any flight lesson is the best motivation. I try to find some
success to tie up the flight package. I avoid relating problems
of the lesson as a 'blame'. We learn as much from our mistakes
as from our successes.
Before a lesson I have established what to teach and how to teach
it. First I decide what ground preparation is required. I will
walk and talk the student through the big picture and then go
through details of anticipation and those parameters of expected
performance. Since we are building, usually, on prior knowledge
we must review those aspects preceding every lesson. Without
the prerequisites the lesson will be less than satisfactory.
Every student's flying career is like a new painting. The lesson
plan for a previous student must be adjusted to fit the next.
The instructor must find what works and mix and match the learning
process to achieve the final result. There are many routes to
the same destination; some are more difficult, bumpy, frustrating
and expensive but all will get us there if we persevere.
An intensive flight instructional period should not exceed 45
minutes of new material. Any instruction of new material beyond
this time will result in deteriorating performance and frustration.
However, it is important that a student's endurance be extended.
It is little clues that warn the instructor of student fatigue.
Failure to clear, pull carburetor heat, or trim correctly are
common signs. As an instructor, I point out to the student my
detection of fatigue and continue the lesson only to review material
while returning to base. Physical fatigue is not as significant
as is fatigue brought on by emotional pressures inside the student.
The poorest judge of fatigue and the performance impairment occurring
is the individual involved.
If the student has not prepared for the lesson, then the lesson
should be canceled, changed to a review, or otherwise adapted
for best utilization of resources. The student should be told
the sequence of maneuvers the instructor plans to follow. New
skill elements will be introduced early in the lesson. Review
and skill maintenance will be covered as time allows. Any discussion,
along with diagrams and walk through, should cover the procedure,
control movements, power settings, common errors, and performance
standards.
While there may be more than one way to teach a flight skill,
some ways may be quicker, more efficient, better, cheaper, or
safer. Behind the way I do or teach a given skill is what I have
learned from mistakes with numerous students, pilots and instructors.
Since the ultimate goal extends beyond a trainer, the student
should be taught from the beginning, as though he was in a higher
performance aircraft. The instructor who initially takes the
easy way to teach is performing a disservice to the student and
thus to aviation. I have detected in checkrides such instructional
faults as allowing a tight grip on the yoke, not using trim,
always making partial flap landings, not verbalizing clearing,
and not permitting the student to do the radio communications.
I try to concentrate on procedures that are safe to use in the
worst of circumstances.
If a particular maneuver is not performed by a student to acceptable
levels the instructor should choose the most economic method
of correction. Instructional skill is demonstrated where the
instructor is able to detect, analyze cause, and provide corrective
feedback to the student immediately. Some correction of errors
should wait until landing. Perhaps a demonstration by the instructor
is required. (My past students have indicated that I may not
demonstrate often enough.) Have the student repeat the exercise
while the instructor talks through the procedure. Have the student
talk through a dry run before doing it again. Every student and
maneuver will require a slightly different instructional touch.
Rules and requirements will not make you a knowledgeable, safe
pilot--instruction will.
If the flying process is tending to overload the student it is
best to remove the pressure. The instructor may assume radio
and traffic watch or even talk the student through a procedure.
Make sure that the student is reducing the work load by correct
use of trim for airspeed. Have him talk through each maneuver
as an aid to the anticipation required for smoothness. Be aware
than much of 'getting behind' in flying has to do with airspeed
control. Trim!!
The truism that the way you first learn something stays with
you for life applies doubly to flying. The student who is taught
procedures in flying that were acceptable or even standard forty
years ago may be dangerously unsafe today. The radio techniques
of forty years ago are the equivalent of Elizabethan English
in today's airspace. The God-like ability of the instructor to
perform flying miracles of precision and performance gives a
halo to even antiquated instruction. The student, with his flying
career ahead, can only proceed oblivious to deficiency of procedure
and the hazards created thereby.
A student may begin to feel various pressures to solo. I do not
solo a student until he has good command of the basics of flight
control, FARs, airspace and communications. I do not teach landings
until the basics are near mastery. Only them do we learn about
the emergency and special situations that can occur in the landing
and takeoff process.
Area
Familiarization
I have instructed at a largely general aviation airport (CCR)
with two sets of dual runways. This has been fortunate because
the potential complexity of arrivals and departures makes it
doubly important that the instructional process prepare the student
for this complexity. Any pilot capable of planning arrivals and
departures to this airport need not fear any other. My first
airport meeting includes a visit (with a tape recorder) to the
tower and other facilities. The visit includes introduction to
the tower chief and controllers. Since 9/11 these visits are no longer
possible.
From the tower I point out the runway directions and numbering
system. I make a point of discussing the flight of aircraft in
the pattern as to position relative to runway and direction.
I show how the differing locations of aircraft as they call up
on the radio can show you where to look in reference to your
movement and location. Next I point out the two- mile reporting
points for each runway as they are used for straight-in or base
arrivals. The Concord Airport Class D footprint is a communications
required area extending a nonstandard 3.1 nautical miles from
the center of the airport up to 2500' AGL. I point out the wind
sock and how it can be interpreted as to wind direction and velocity.
I make a tour of the ramp to show student how to look at airplanes
according to manufacturer and types. When ATC (Air Traffic Control)
advises you to look for a certain type aircraft, it is important
that you know what it looks like. It is even more important to
know where you are. Knowing where you are is the best stress
reducer known to flying. Stress focuses the attention and vision.
It is the partial reason finding an airport or an airplane is
difficult.
In addition to the tower and home facilities I will take my students
to a Flight Service Station and a radar facility. But not since 9/11
limitations prevent such visits for safety reasons having nothing to
to with student pilot. I prefer to
self conduct these trips since FAA personnel often see the facility
from a different view. From the visits the student can appreciate
and see the logic behind some of the recommended ATC procedures.
I see that the student gets a practical tour suited to the flying
being done. The visit to facilities removes the mystique of ATC
and gives the radio voices reality. If these visits occur early
on, it is worthwhile to repeat again when correlating knowledge
makes the visit more meaningful.
Regardless of the student's experience I like to begin with a
directional orientation exercise. I first ask the student to
point to magnetic North. In Northern California a surprising
number of flyers still believe the highway sign system which
more often than not has signs saying North that is actually West,
etc. The fact that Northern California is really West of "Southern"
California only adds to the confusion. Any pilot departing South
from any major airport in California can expect to be over The
Pacific Ocean within 200 miles. After getting the four cardinal
headings sorted out, I like to position all the cities around
the airport for a distance of fifty miles. Lastly, I point out
the directions to nearby airports.
Prior to entering the plane, after the preflight is completed,
a complete discussion and analysis of both planned departure
and arrival are made. On the first lesson this may consist of
only mentioning toward a particular city. As lessons proceed,
the coverage becomes more specific and intense as required knowledge
for solo flight. I will generally warn the student during our
phone conversations as to what to expect and how to prepare.
According to the runway, a specific departure request is required
to get us where we are going. Choose a specific checkpoint toward
which to depart. Have the student locate the checkpoint and figure
out the request to be made to the tower. An additional benefit
of this instructional process is that the student can use his
knowledge of airport checkpoints for traffic awareness. An airplane
reporting at the other side of the airport from your departure
can virtually be eliminated as a hazard. However your downwind
departure may be in conflict with an aircraft reporting two mile
base.
During each departure, flight checkpoints along the flight line
should be pointed out as to identification, distance, and runway
orientation. These points will be incorporated into the radio
work for subsequent arrivals. This radio planning for arrivals
is best done on the ground prior to departure to be followed
by a known arrival.
The area orientation process proceeds gradually with discussion
and explanations over many lessons. A complete diagram of the
airport is provided the student with most reporting points identified
at two, five and ten miles around the airport. A visit to the
tower gives the student a better idea of the airport layout.
By understanding the ground controller's viewpoint of the airport
and the tower's view of the various checkpoints the student will
be a safer pilot. The student is expected to visit the tower
once for each three-hours of flight time. Taking coffee to the
controllers is a plus.
The planned return to the airport requires that the beginning
student at least have an idea of which way to go. Later flights
require discussion and analysis that covers at least three or
four runways with a variety of entries and two-mile reporting
points. In my instructional material I incorporate an area diagram
covering call up checkpoints as well as an airport diagram giving
Class D airspace checkpoints and two-mile reporting points. Intermediate
position points are included where practical.
The Cockpit
Using the tape recorder I go over all the instruments and
controls. I pay particular attention to the markings and divisions
on the dials, their degrees of accuracy, reliability, and source
of power. I display aircraft papers and manual and recommend
future study and perusal. I emphasize positioning of pilot, setting
of seats, belts, windows and doors. I introduce positioning of
controls and switches. I demonstrate the setting and release
of the parking brake. This is information often omitted in checkouts.
I will recommend that the parking brake not be used as a normal
procedure because of its unreliability. I demonstrate operation
of primer, throttle clutch, and fuel shut off valve. I show how
the last few inches of rearward yoke movement goes up as well
as back. Most of all I introduce the way the radio knobs and
switches work. With the Master Switch on I will show how successive
counts of 1-2-3-4 will give 10 degrees of additional flap. We
will note irregularities on the flap indicator and practice getting
the count so that we get 10 degrees every time. This eliminates
one additional distraction during the landing process.
Introduction to
the Radio
I introduce the ATIS frequency, 124.7, the alphabetical sequencing,
order of information during the day, and how to use this information.
Most important I show how the data may be written for maximum
usefulness by entering the data in the four quadrants of a + chart.
I give the phone number to use for home use and practice 685-4567.
To avoid mixing one ATIS with another it is best to use Post It
Stickers with one to every ATIS
I then take the student through what to say to Ground Control
and to the Tower. If no headset: I always make the student initially
practice what to say while holding the microphone to his lips
with his left hand. Held too far from the mouth, the microphone
admits engine and propeller noise. It is surprising how difficult
some find it to talk into a microphone with their left hand. All
ground radio operations with the microphone should be taught and
done with the left hand. For flight operations the right hand
should be used. It only takes a one time experience with ATC and
having the mike in the wrong hand to make this way of training
relevant. A yoke switch and headset eliminates the problem but
the training technique and skill is still worthwhile. Learn to
keep the mike in your hand if only by the cord. Don't start the
engine until you have practiced the radio work.
Before you enter the plane you should have noted the active runway,
the wind, and the direction you will be departing. By guessing
at wind direction and velocity the student can gain ability to
second guess the ATIS and interpret windsocks at airports. The
preflight consists of a complete tape-recorded walk around from
which the student will make a scratch checklist. The 'why' of
each item will be discussed with cautionary notes. It usually
takes at least five revisions of the checklist before an acceptable
one is achieved. Every pilot should develop his personal checklist
for each aircraft.
I have made it a practice to make each departure from the airport
in a different direction using differing departure procedures.
The most complex of these departures is the 270-degree overhead.
This 270 departure will allow many cross country trips to be initiated
on the course line. Likewise, arrivals are planned to give a variety
of checkpoints and pattern entries. This departure/arrival study
is followed by a complete oral radio review of what will be said
with anticipated response from ATC. The student must be taught
how anticipation allows him to PLAN where to say what. Always
practice communicating the correct words without pause. The student
uses the radio from the very beginning. You must learn to talk
airplane.
After you have received the ATIS, you want to position the aircraft
so as to be over a well-known geographic point commonly used as
a reporting point but at an uncommon altitude. The selection of
this point should be far enough away so as to allow you to plan
your arrival and prepare what to say on the radio. These points
usually allow you to select the best one of the several five-mile
points for entry into the ATA. The knowledge of these five mile
points and their associated two mile points helps you, the pilot,
plan what to say on the radio. This can be studied but will still
require actual performance to develop skill. You have done the
callup correctly when the tower says, "Approved as requested".
You will never stop learning how to make arrivals.
After a couple of flights the student should begin to see how
a given two-mile point may serve both as a two-mile final reporting
point and as a 45 entry for another runway. Concord, due to its
parallel runways, has a relatively complex arrival/departure system.
One reporting point may serve as a two-mile base reporting point
for different runways. It will take many flights and much instruction
to master its multiple options.
I follow the same discussion and analysis for our arrival and
departure at neighboring airports. Fortunately, these airports
are in different quadrants and vary from having a Class C airspace
underlying a Class B airspace to uncontrolled. For years I have
made a practice of using these airports for pre-solo landing instruction
and practice. This has meant that the student gets the practical
experience of departures and arrivals. He develops familiarity
with procedures, airports, and landmarks in a 25 mile radius surrounding
his home field. I can only guess the comfort such knowledge provides
the student on solo cross-country flights.
Aircraft radios are usually divided into two separate parts: Communications
and Navigation. For now we will deal only with the COM side. The
on/off switch works for both sides. As with most radios, the on/off
switch is also the volume control. There is a 'squelch' control
that is adjusted to just below the level of hearing a hiss or
buzz. Where reception is poor, the squelch would need to be full
right. More Initially you will need to know only four frequencies.
Memorize them.
ATIS on 124.7,
Concord Ground on 121.9
Concord Tower on 119.7
Emergency 121.5
At this point I show how the frequency range and selection is
controlled by the knobs. I suggest that the sequence of frequencies
at our home field can be very quickly and efficiently selected
by counting the clicks. I explain the used of the squelch control
and how a volume selected for taxi may not be sufficient for takeoff.
There are two COM frequency control knobs. The large knob controls
the numbers to the left of the decimal point and the small one
those to the right. The large knob can be turned completely through
the numbers right or left from 118 to 135. Turn right to get larger
numbers; left for smaller.
How the numbers appear when turning the small knob will vary but,
it is usually from .0 through .95. An additional switch can allow
an additional place value that gives up to 720 radio frequencies.
The numerical values can be changed continuously in either direction.
I would suggest that you practice turning in sequence
from 124.7 to 121.9;
from 121.9 to 119.7
from 124.7 to 119.7
from 119.7 to 121.9
from 121.9 to 121.5
These changes are those used for normal leaving and ending at
CCR (Concord) Practice in counting the clicks as you go left or
right from one frequency to another. You should do this so that
you can reduce the amount of attention (distraction) needed for
changing frequencies. Try it; you'll like it. Where an aircraft
has dual radios, the operation and understanding of the control
panel will be explained.
You should note that the frequencies for both sides Com and Nav,
of the radio go from 108.0 to 117.95 on the Nav side and from
118.0 to 135.95 on the Com side. These are the aircraft VHF FM,
(Very High Frequency, Frequency Modulation) frequencies, limited
to line of sight reception and transmission.
An ADF can be used for reception only on four AM (Amplitude Modulation)
radio bands and is not restricted to line of sight. The frequencies
are shown in magenta. One of the four bands is the standard commercial
broadcast band. The ADF needle will point to the selected station
only on the ADF setting. On REC the best reception of music is
possible. Military radios use UHF (Ultra High Frequency).
Pilot Error
50 Years Ago
In December of 1947 an Air Force study released the following
analysis of pilot errors that precipitate accidents. There is
no reason to think things have changed since then.
50% of problems are "substitution" errors where the
incorrect control is moved
18% are "forgetting" errors in which the pilot forgot
to unlock, check or use a control.
18% are "adjustment" errors by operating a control
too slowly, rapidly or into the wrong position.
5% are unintentional activation.
6% were "reversal" errors such as moving the control
in the wrong direction.
3% are caused by inability to reach a control.
Instruction as an Accident Factor
20.4% of all flying is instructional
14.1 of accidents occur during instruction
84% of go-around accidents are by students.
14.1 of accidents are maintenance related.
15.3 of accidents are fuel related.
Teaching To A Higher Level
Because of the concentrated information that is being loaded
on the student in the beginning, I use a tape recorder so that
the material is available under less stressful conditions. This
allows the student to listen and make notes about unanswered
questions or concerns. With the instructional tapes as a guide
the student can plan a head for the next lesson. the first thing
I usually ask of a student is, "Are there any questions?"
I average over thirty minutes of pre-lesson ground instruction
before every flight. If a procedure can be walked through, we
walk it through.
I use the (old) FAA Instructor's Handbook from page 85 as a lesson
plan guide but I have many variations and supplements to the
basic requirements simply because I feel that the FAA requires
only a minimum and I don't teach to minimum skills. Prepare for
the lesson by reference to the syllabus and ;I very much recommend
that you call the instructor the night before a lesson to confirm
that you have read the related reading material from the FAA
texts or equivalent written in a more interesting style.
I have been known to be a difficult taskmaster in setting my
performance criteria for students. I admit to some tendency to
press students in their accuracy in flying a specific airspeed
instead of accepting the POH variable range. I admit that I expect
my students and pilots to be proficient in their radio work.
We rehearse on the ground and in the air until it meet professional
level. I admit that I expect taxiing skills be practiced and
developed quickly. I admit that I take a bit longer in soloing
my students. However, after my students solo they progress quickly
and efficiently in their ability to fly solo between airports
of all kinds and complexity. My students use trim for all changes
of configuration; they fly hands off and use only two fingers
on the yoke.
My students have been exposed to crosswinds up to 18 knots at
90 degrees. They have flown SVFR and marginal VFR. They have
landed on a farmers field. They have flown to a weather emergency
field and made a surveillance approach using radar assistance.
They have made their night landings at least five different airports.
My students are proficient at pilotage. They know where they
are! My students are, if anything overly proficient, in their
ability to follow ATC instructions and to suggest other options.
My students are respectful in their care and treatment of the
aircraft, courteous in their relations with other pilots and
aircraft. My students transition into larger and more complex
aircraft with a minimum of time and difficulty because they have
learned to fly and control the C-150 or C-172 as though it were
a much larger and complex aircraft.
A Training Program
I make a practice of having prospective students come to my
home (office), or other suitable place, for a couple of hours to discuss flying. I request
that the student arrive on time with a tape recorder. Too much
information is covered to be remembered, otherwise. We begin by
discussing their needs, requirements, motivation, background and
prior experience. Sometimes, the specific future flying plans
of the a student requires somewhat different instruction. I advise
getting any insurance and appropriate flight medical before beginning
training or making any purchases.
A student is not supposed to know very much in the beginning.
I will ask many questions as an instructor. It is not my intention
to demean the student. I need to find out the student's limits
of knowledge. I need to know what you don't know. When I get a
wrong answer, it probably means that I asked the wrong question.
A major part of teaching is knowing the question to ask that will
enable the student to identify the upper limit of his knowledge.
The correct question and answer combination leaves the student
with a sense of accomplishment. It allows the instructor room
for further extension of that knowledge. Questions are a learning/teaching
tool.
The study process is just beginning with the completion of traditional
ground and flight readings. The initial information package is
just the foundation upon which to build. I set up a flight and
study program according to the situation as I see it. I explain
how the success of any teaching I may do depends on their background.
The better the student understands the value and necessity of
the study program, the more likely I will find a well-prepared
student for each flight.
Thanks to the use of the tape recorder much greater instructional
efficiency can be obtained. More time can be spent on the ground
both in preparation for the flight and in flight review. The student
knows that the information is available for review. The tape recorder
in the air gives the student an opportunity to re-fly the exercise.
The student will hear directions over the intercom system that
he responded to without thinking. Things will be said on the radio
tape that never reached his consciousness during the actual flight.
It is suggested that the student playback the tapes initially
while driving and then during study periods where notes and outlines
of information should be compiled on 4 x 6 cards or a computer
file. This information can be a valuable review program later.
Just because information is on the tape does not mean that the
instructor can assume it is understood and capable of being applied.
The best time to begin flying lessons is in the late fall. This
is the time of the year when weather will allow development of
go/no-go judgment in the student. It also allows the exposure
of the student to SVFR (Special Visual Flight Rules) and other
adverse weather under the guidance of the instructor. Weather
will help determine the spacing of instruction. Cross country
flight conditions will provide a desirable mix of winds and weather.
Night flight requirements can be met well before midnight. By
late spring the student should finish his requirements and complete
the flight test just in time for the good weather of summer. The
summer is used to develop hours and experience. By winter, selective
flying can continue secured by the knowledge acquired the previous
year. Too many students give up flying when faced with winter
weather unlike any they experienced during a summer of instruction.
In recent years the "total immersion" method of flight
instruction has come into vogue as an efficiency/cost saving mechanism.
It works, at a cost in experience. A certain amount of seasoning
experience that is acquired by extending the instruction over
varying weather conditions is lost by such concentration. Compressed
training both in ground and flight training makes it possible
to produce an educated fool who flies. I would like my students
to grow in experience by enjoying flying. As a pilot advances
up the flying ladder, he will find that ratings and knowledge
are expected but experience is preferred. Experience is an unpleasant
teacher since it gives the test first and the lesson afterwards.
Aviation skills are composites of several fundamental elements.
The single elements are introduced, learned, and mastered on at
a time through practice. Practice of the right kind that is. Each
element is then combined with another element. The aggregate of
the single elements is harmonized through practice and anticipation
until they produce a continuous flow called a maneuver. A maneuver
is not mastered as an entirety until the basic elements are mastered
and sequenced. The success of a maneuver is based on the performance
of each basic element. Any defective element will affect the maneuver
and can be the precipitating cause of an accident.
The ideal is any teaching program is a plan that gives maximum
positive transfer of a selected learning skill to a progression
of tasks with a minimum of interference between skills learned
in separate tasks. What this means is
that the making of 30-degree banks in basic flight maneuvers
in level, climbing, and descent will be applied to the traffic
pattern as they are performed with variations in flap configuration.
This is a complex process where the instructor and student are
seeking consistency, anticipation, and safety awareness.
There are only two types of flight instructors; those who are
trying to get out of instructing and those who are trying to stay
in instructing. I am trying to remain an instructor because I
see a need. The treasure of experience, required of an instructor,
can only be built up by operational time. Unfortunately, it is
time that causes a reduction in experienced instructors.
Instructors begin to customize of their training program before
the first flight. For the individual's motivation, background
and time the instructor must have different way to present ground,
flight and post flight instruction. The instructor's program should
expose the student with the full field of required knowledge,
familiarize him with the local situation and lay the groundwork
for the next higher phase of training.
The very first flight lesson must have planned objectives both
immediate and of longer range. The student must be aware of the
immediate and perhaps of the longer range ones as well. The best
way to waste the time and money devoted to flying is to not know
what is to be accomplished. Every lesson has stated or written
objectives and measurable results. A properly integrated flight/ground
program will bring the student to the airplane prepared for that
lesson, expectant of a partial review and eager to be prepared
for the next flight.
I often believe I became a flight instructor to get even. Much
of my own instruction was excessively wasteful of time and money.
A student is under considerable physical and emotional stress
when learning to fly. If cost is contributing to the student's
stress, it would be best to stop flying until funds are acquired.
Learning to fly is expensive, and no amount of anxiety is going
to change the cost. Don't waste time trying to change things that
can't be changed. (What, again.) Use of the correct terminology
is an essential part of flying. Vocabulary development is a must.
An instructor must be a good at making any explanation fit into
the student's level of comprehension. The best explanations take
place on the ground; the best demonstrations take place in the
air.
Flight instruction is a behavior forming and modification process.
You are working in an extremely precise and unforgiving profession.
Behind every major flight performance there is a multiplicity
of small movements and skills required in making a safe result
possible. Students learn their attitudes toward flying from the
instructor. Attitudes affect behaviors. The teaching of a safe
flying attitude is even more important than a high skill level.
I will try to remember to always give the "why". If
I forget, ask. The reason behind doing a particular act makes
the act more meaningful, more likely to be remembered, and more
acceptable to the student.
The instructor should have given some idea as to what to expect
on the next flight. This information is basic to any preparation
required. My students are expected to follow up with a phone call
the night before a flight so that in addition to discussion of
the planned flight alternatives caused by weather or time can
be covered. As a student, you can reduce the stress of a lesson
by being prepared. Your first instructor will set your standards
of expectations and preparation. The biggest problems will be
scheduling. Most of the expense of learning to fly is due to a
poor scheduling program.
Prior to every flight I will spend at least 30 minutes discussing
the skill building blocks upon which the coming maneuvers will
be based. I will walk through, diagram, and 'handee' so that the
student understands both the maneuvers and the performance parameters.
I will depart up wind if possible to make the flight less costly.
I use the climb out to teach skills such as Dutch rolls. I plan
the entire lesson so that when completed we will be in position
to contact our home base.
We make a sequential listing of the expected radio frequencies
we will need. We review the universal frequencies that we should
know. According to our experience we will mentally, orally, or
write the expected communications to accompany the frequencies.
The night before we will check with the FSS for the forecast that
applies to our expected flight time. An hour before leaving home
we will make another weather check with the FSS and perhaps even
make a phone call to our destination if no weather is available.
I help in arrival planning to know the runway in use and wind
conditions. You will save far more than the cost of the phone
call by being able to make an efficient arrival.
The final flight preparation should be a check with the instructor
if you have any unanswered questions. Instructors who enjoy flying
respond to the student who is inquisitive and makes available
the extra effort and time to learn more. A good student helps
the instructor do a good job. Don't wait until you get into the
airplane to ask the "What if...," questions.
During the post flight debriefing it is beneficial if the student
is able to make a self analysis of how he performed. It is important
that the student recognize good, satisfactory, and poor performances.
This means that the student must know what the tolerances of acceptability
are. It is even more important that the causes be determined.
If, for whatever reason, his solo performance is outside these
limits he must so advise his instructor and plan for a corrective
lesson. Every student flight should have its parameters designed
to meet requirements for the flight examination. To fly otherwise
is a waste of time and money.
Major CFI Applicant Problems
Areas
--Not fitting lesson to student level
-- Too much talking without check on comprehension.
-- Avoiding unknown answers
--Not 'hearing' the student
-- Quitting lesson before needed level of proficiency.
-- Instructor loses control of lesson.
--Incomplete paper work.
Gaining Experience
Once reasonable proficiency in the four basics and landing
procedures has been acquired, it is important that the instructor
provide variations such as are likely to occur during student
solo flight. I don't believe a student should be soloed until
he has experienced, with the instructor, at least light to moderate
turbulence, low ceilings, unanticipated wind changes, reduced
visibility and unexpected ATC directions. Any of these factors
can so disrupt the thought processes and performance of a student
as to create a dangerous situation. Instruction should provide
the student with at least one exposure to possible events that
are common to solo flight.
A proper flight program shows a student what his limitations are.
The initial restrictions imposed by instructor endorsements will
eventually be replaced by those perceived by the neophyte pilot.
The instructor must expose the student to those situations that
will give him experience in determining his personal limits. In
addition, there are aircraft and regulatory limitations that must
be known to the pilot. Personal limitations apply to and are set
by all pilots. Aircraft limitations are set by the manufacturer
using superior pilots and new planes. The pilot must make allowances
for how much he and his aircraft deviate from superior and new.
The FARs set limits designed to promote safety, consideration,
and efficiency.
Experience is what you think about what has happened. Flying gives
you, the pilot, exposure to experiences. Your contemplation of
those experiences as recorded in your logbook reveals what you
gained from the experience. Another source of experience is learning
from others. The sharing of experiences and profiting from them
is ingrained in the folklore of flying. Most aviation books and
magazines are replete with a sharing of experiences. Start with
"Stick and Rudder." Every personal and shared experience
should be evaluated for its usefulness. You can never know too
much about flying. The best way to learn about flying is to teach
it. Teaching a skill makes you understand it.
One essential of the successful program is the frequency of the
flight lessons. Anything less than twice a week is too little,
anything more than three times a week is going to require near
full time ground study. Make a One-half hour of tower visiting
time for every three hours of flight. The instructor expects a
phone call the evening before the flight to review the flight.
Feel free to phone at other times to discuss flying or your concerns.
9/11 has certainly affected flight safety.
The pilot who never (seldom) practices flight in the outer performance
ranges of the aircraft is not prepared for the critical flight
situation. This would include such speeds as Vx and Vy climbs,
short and soft approaches, slow flight, minimum controllable,
slips, go-arounds and ground reference. The reserve capacity between
requirement and capability decreases with passage of time. It
is for this reason that the time interval between student flights
should never be more that three or four days at most. Unless you
learn from it, whatever you experience while flying will not result
in improvement. Don't practice beyond the parameters learned with
the instructor. If you want to go beyond these parameters, do
it with the instructor.
Every flight decision is a judgment decision. A decision/performance
line, extending through 'best,' to better, to good, to bad to
worse, to worst exists. There is no one way to perform any flying
operation. If the operation, such as slow flight, is achieved,
the actual performance is along this line. The instructor teaches
performance and decisions along this line and his level of acceptance
sets the achievement standards of the student. As flight training
progresses, standards are changed and raised and raised again
and again. This process must be recognized and accepted by both
instructor and student. There is no more an end to this continuum
than there is the mathematical "pi".
Research shows that the more experience you have the more quickly
you will make critical decisions. Practice making decisions makes
the decision-making process more efficient. This ability applies
to all aspects of flying. If the pilot is not exposed to situations
that require decision-making skill, the skill will not develop.
Practical training opportunities must be afforded the student.
Instructional
Sequence
By the second flight the student should have previewed the aircraft
manual. The manual checklist material must be completely incorporated
into that of the student. The next flight's preflight will use
the scratch checklist with the instructor reading the items while
the student does the checking. The student will make another
revision from this tape and use it on the next preflight under
the instructor's supervision. On all future flights the student
will have the plane pre-flighted and ready at the appointed time.
Fuel, oil, and weather status are confirmed to the instructor
as well.
The first three flight lessons are designed to acquire competence
in the four basic maneuvers, climbs, level, descent, power changes,
trim, flaps, stall recognition, and associated turns. I make
it a point to combine the basics with radio procedures, area
familiarization, knowledge of aerodynamics, emergency procedures,
and safety. The next two or three lessons uses ground reference
flying to develop those skills required to fly airport patterns
according to wind conditions.
With these lessons as the basis we now apply them to takeoff
and landings. These are initially practiced as a unified series
of maneuvers, including downwind, base, final, go-around, climb,
and crosswind. Patterns are practiced with emphasis on power,
airspeeds, trim, and flaps to both the left and right. This is
done initially at altitude to remove the inhibitions caused by
ground proximity. Then it is practiced at a neighboring tower
airport with the go-around occurring progressively closer to
the ground.
The next four or five flights are planned as landing practice
at nearby airports in different directions from the home field.
These flights include the procedures of departure, arrival, radio,
checkpoint selection, as well as the actual takeoff/landing procedure.
During the actual closed pattern the instructor takes all responsibility
for communications and traffic watch. This reduction of burden
is important to the success of the student.
The landing lessons are then concentrated at the home field.
The landing lesson just prior to solo consists of an airport
exercise utilizing all runways and common pattern maneuvers.
Normally two or perhaps three supervised solo flight follow at
the home field. The instructor next flies with the student to
and from one of the local fields that have been used previously
for landing instruction. On return, the student is allowed to
immediately duplicate the flight. This is repeated three or four
times to all the local fields with the variety of radio procedures
required. The student now has a circular region of 40-50 mile
radius in which he would be knowledgeable of the area, airports
and appropriate procedures.
About this time there will be a change in the instructional approach.
Initially, the instructor will become more strident and demanding
in all parameters. Airspeed is now expected within 2 knots, altitude
within 25 feet, headings within 5 degrees, power settings right
on, trim for hands off, ball centered and banks at 30 degrees.
Aircraft control, situational awareness and assertive communications
are now the goal of every lesson.
Suddenly there is silence. The instructor just sits there and
watches or at most, only points. The instructor expects the student
to note and correct mistakes without intervention. It is best
when the student talks to himself so that the recorder notes
what is transpiring. If deemed necessary, I will take over control,
and speak briefly to make a point before again relinquishing
control again.
The next two or three flights, other than local student solo
training flights, cover proficiency in different types of landings.
The first cross-country training flight is an instructor/student
prepared, planned, and flown. Everything works perfectly. The
next flight is prepared, planned, and flown by the student with
the instructor. Creative instruction presents realistic problems
where they naturally occur and otherwise. Subsequent to these
training flights the student prepared, plans and flies a minimum
of ten hours of cross country with one extended flight. About
this time the studying required to take the written examination
should be completed and the test taken and passed.
When the cross-country requirements have been flown, the proficiency
phase begins. All flight maneuvers are reviewed and practiced
in dual and solo flights to meet the Practical Test Standard
requirements. Preparation is for the oral part of the PTS. This
includes knowledge of weather, sectional, aircraft, manual, computer,
FARs, navigation, radio, and airspace. The skillful pilot is
smooth. Aircraft control is done in anticipation and not reaction.
You should know ahead of time what to expect of the airplane,
the atmosphere, and yourself.
It is best to learn a new process related to flying, such as
aircraft radio procedures, without any similar previous experience.
This is especially true if the initial instruction is correctly
done. Every individual has background and experience factors
related to flying that can either make it easier or more difficult.
The instincts of the student may be contradictory and erroneous.
The competent instructor must deal with these and more. The incompetent
instructor often provides fertilizer. Changing habitual behavior
is the single most difficult teaching and learning aspect of
instruction. The goal of habitual behavior makes it even more
important that the first taught or learned process be correct.
In an emergency, a pilot will return to his first learning exposure
and react accordingly.
A student, because of the instructor's inability to detect erroneous
instincts and perceptions, may retain basic flight deficiencies.
This instructional weakness may be fostered by the inherent safety
of the modern aircraft. Yet it is this inherent safety of the
aircraft that conceals the damage done by inadequate instruction.
Even the most docile of aircraft will bite given the opportunity.
The problem lies with the instructor who fails to insist on the
safest of all procedures compared to the relative safety of the
other options. It's not that there is only one way to operate
an airplane. However, of the possible options, one way may provide
more safety options. Therefore it is necessary for the instructor
to be knowledgeable as to the what and why of these options.
The instructor is, hopefully, the medium for exposure to both
failures and successes. The problems students have are directly
related to instructional problems.
The instructor must keep the student advised of what constitutes
desirable performance prior to each lesson. After each lesson,
the different maneuvers should be discussed individually according
to these parameters. Students are ultra sensitive to post flight
critiques. Increased smoothness, accuracy, and confidence can
measure any progress in a lesson. It is important that the instructor
be truthful and not given to false praise. The very nature of
flying makes acceptance of anything less than proficiency to
the highest attainable level downright dangerous. This is regardless
of other time considerations. Total immersion into flying at
every moment is the best and least expensive way to learn to
fly. Anything else is proportionately less efficient. The search
for superior performance begins immediately; the acquisition
takes longer.
The instructor should be aware of factors, both within and beyond
the instructional domain, that affect the learning and performance
of the student. The instructor has an ever increasing responsibility
to prepare the student. There is no way the student can be prepared
for every eventuality but the good instructor will try. The actual
flying of the aircraft becomes a background for the required
radio procedures, area orientation, and positioning. Situations
must occur or be created that expose the student to the realities
of flying. Increased self-confidence must not become over-confidence.
Every student and instructor has frustration levels that are
evinced by tangible and intangible evidence. The instructor will
anticipate possible areas of frustration and set the parameters
to avoid problems until they can be approached with the appropriate
skills and knowledge. I try to advise the student that the totally
overwhelming amount of information coming at him through the
first few lessons will rapidly sort itself out. Much of what
we do is repetitive, such as starting the engine. Some skills
will take several flights. The Dutch Roll (needed for crosswind
landings) requires up to five flights before the first satisfactory
series. The first ground reference lesson will be a disaster
unless it is presented as an introduction.
The purpose of extending flight times with students, after they
start making mistakes, is to build up that reserve performance
capacity required to meet future flight requirements. Failure
to have such capacity means that on a subsequent flight the student
may reach a capability/requirement imbalance. The student pilot
can be taught to recognize the progression by having the instructor
note mistakes as they first occur during a flight. Pilot error,
as though a single cause, is an over simplification of how fatigue,
lack of preparation, or pseudo-agnosia (Not knowing what you
don't know) affects a given maneuver.
Every lesson will contain review segments where a higher level
of performance is the goal. Transitions into configurations are
performed more quickly; heading and altitude parameters are closed,
and speed tolerances are tighter. Expectations are raised; self
doubts reduced; and confidence increased. A good lesson always
leaves the student full of anticipation for the next level of
proficiency.
Failure to expose a student to a variety of marginal conditions
be it weather, turbulence, airports or terrain fails to develop
judgmental skills.
Age As A Factor
in Instruction
As we age the ability to access skill information slows.
Successful flying is directly related to the speed we think and
message that these thoughts turn into action. One advantage that
age related experience has, is the appearance of skill retention.
The aged can anticipate what is required soon enough that old
skills appear to be exercised. There is little we can do about
becoming older, considering the alternative. However, we are
usually able to compensate in other areas so that no appreciable
skill loss seems to occur.
Every flying student will on occasion suffer from information
overload. Older students recognize this more easily than younger
students simply because they have had more exposure in other
situations. Stress, fatigue, and maturity will affect just how
a student handles overload. Fatigue is a noticeable effect of
age in flying. I have found that nutrition can make some degree
of compensation. I have found that age does not affect learning
if the base of the knowledge is extensive and memory is consistently
reinforced. As an older pilot I find that I don’t need to
press so hard in time and mental energy to organize the needed
information.
An instructor can be tuned to pick up signs of student overload.
It will begin to show in little things. Moving the trim in the
wrong direction is the one I often pick up first. Little mistakes
on the radio soon turn into larger problems. Motor skills begin
to fail along with and increasingly tight hold on the controls.
These flying faults appear sooner in those students who fail
to eat prior to flying. Carry water on all flights. Dehydration
has critical effects on the thought processes. When overload
becomes severe most students withdraw and fail to communicate
either their problem or concern to the instructor.
The favorable side effects of age in flying are a more perceptive
use of judgment. Good flying decisions make the application of
knowledge seem to be more skillful. New skills should be introduced
gradually and in segments. Proficiency requirements should be
approached in such a way as to reduce stress. Repeated maneuvers
are stressful to students and it is best not to repeat failed
maneuvers more than once unless the repeat is performed successfully.
Reminds me of my 81-year old student of twenty years ago. We
never did touch and go's. We always made stop-and-go's.
Quality or Quantity?
I find it difficult to believe otherwise than that the quality
for each lesson depends solely upon the dedication and abilities
of the instructor. The training must be tailored to the needs
and capability of the student. I teach for efficiency in flight
planning, professional level radio work, and precise holding
of headings, altitudes and airspeeds. Confidence can be built
one brick at a time. There will always be something new but much
will remain the same. The flying is a given. Radio changes mostly
in names. Safety requires active looking and selective listening.
Areas change but situational awareness builds point by point.
As instructors we are urged to be accepting of personality differences
as merely being different. I feel that when these differences
relate to the judgment and consideration the instructor owes
in teaching flying a higher standard. I will not teach anyone
who smokes. They show poor judgment. I will not teach anyone
who shows disrespect to me by being late or to the aircraft by
careless treatment.
I will not excuse a student who fails to prepare for a lesson.
Failure to prepare places an unfair burden upon me as the instructor.
Failure to review prior instruction places an unfair burden as
well. A student who knowingly makes my instructional job more
difficult is not showing consideration of my time. This is even
truer since I do not charge for a major portion of the time.
The very best students to teach are the ones who come with a
mental blank slate. Unfortunately there are no such students.
Every student I have taught has come with a goodly collection
of mental and emotional baggage. It will take considerable time
for me to uncover or for the student to reveal the wealth of
correct conceptions and the hidden misconceptions held about
flying. I will seek to develop a student's trust my methods and
intentions. I want a student who will ask questions, I want a
student who is curious and willing to challenge me for reasons
for what I say. I want a student who is unafraid to challenge
my reasons for stressing a specific procedure over any other.
I want a student who can laugh at problems, mistakes, and stress
situations. I want a student who is pleased when I am pleased.
I want a student who tries to make me laugh when he exceeds expectations.
Abnormal
Situation Training
We do not want a first spin to be of the accidental kind.
We do not want a first encounter with adverse weather to be while
solo. A pilot's first SVFR experience should not be after getting
rated. Training that avoids turbulence is not likely to give
a pilot familiarity and confidence when cockpit things begin
to jump. The startle factor of such events are quite likely to
cause reactions based upon instinct rather than training. The
rule of primacy is apt to be a pilot's worst enemy in a startle
situation. The failure of training to provide prior experience
into abnormal situations is a failure of the instructional program
and instructor. Good judgment and appropriate decision making
can only exist through situational exposure. Flight instruction
is expected to prepare students to fly into the expected and
to avoid the unexpected.
Communications
Mistakes by Instructors
1. Making confusing or misleading statements (30% of the time)
2. Instructor misinterpreted communication (16% of the time)
3. Instructor delayed comment to student impacting flight safety.
4. 20% of problems are with aircraft radios or intercoms
5. 50% occur below 1000' AGL near airport
Providing
Experience as Instructional Purpose
1. Every lesson should provide memorable experiences
2. A memorable experience is what the student thinks happened.
3. Teach to the student's ability to make things happen and associate
happenings
4. Avoid situations that make students watch and wonder what
happened
5. The more success you provide the more success that will follow.
6. Provide the experience but follow up with studied interpretation
and practical application.
The way a pilot uses an airplane is, or should be, an important
part of the instructional program. The instructional plan should
be to teach flying, as the student will be flying. Cross-country,
night flying, marginal conditions, mountain survival, high winds,
and long distance. IFR and equipment use, such as radar, serfic (lightning) interpretation, and circling approaches. The airlines specialize
their programs to train their pilots for the conditions and aircraft
they will use in the 'real' world. Should general aviation instructors
do any less?
A Need
to Understand
A1Nut Wrote:
>Gene, as a student pilot, I like the variety of lessons you
outline. However, I say from personal experience that if the
student doesn't *understand* in his head the reasons for each
part of each maneuver you require, that you are:
1) wasting both his time and yours as well as fuel,
2) introducing unknown material to someone who is already probably
at max theoretical knowledge absorption limit. (new phrase 8-)
). In short, you're just confusing them.
3) they may get the muscle memory of the flight actions, but
if the understanding doesn't go along with it, you introduce
a dangerous situation.
Gene Replies
A1Nut is absolutely correct that a student must understand the
reasons for every flying exercise. I don't know what gave the
impression that the specific lessons I give as the First Landing
Lesson, the Radio Exercise and Solo Preparation were ever taught
without the student knowing the why for each lesson.
First, I would emphasize that I have tape recorded over eight
thousand hours of flight instruction and close to that on the
ground prior to every flight. I talk and walk through everything
we will do and where we will
do it. Not just the maneuver but the radio work as well. My students
take the tapes with them. Additionally, most of my students call
me in the evening so we can go over the reasons for the lesson
and cover any
questions they may have before we meet at the aircraft. I never
charge for talking. No one could afford me.
Briefly, the 'reason' for the First Landing Lesson consisting
of go-arounds has to do with the learning law of primacy. I want
my students to use the go-around as their first option for a
blotched landing. I do not teach how
to salvage a landing to students.
The radio exercise came out of my experiences with first-solo
students. My first five solo students had weird things happen.
I do that exercise using all the runways and complex ATC instructions
because I don't want my students to have problem. They know that
after this lesson they will be responsible for
all subsequent radio work.
I do not let students practice for solo beyond 30 minutes because
it has been my experience that fatigue and tension increases
and confidence deteriorates. If the conditions do not allow the
solo, I turn it into refining other aspects such as short, soft
and slips. My students know when they are ready and so do I.
One last point. I do not count the hours prior to solo. I have
a program of my own that is pointing the student to what he is
going to need to be an accomplished pilot. My students are dangerously
good on the radio. Dangerous because ATC tends to use proficiency
on the radio as a measure of pilot experience. I have given my
students a fifty mile circle of airports and
area where they know where they are and what to do in that area.
Cross-country flying is a non-event.
Teaching
Teaching is purposeful speech that is supposed to impart from
one, the teacher, to another, the student. The transmission of
knowledge is only a part of the result. More importantly the
purpose is the creation of desire to continue the process. Flying
is the name of the game and inspiration is the driver. However
dedicated and competent the teacher the desired result will not,
cannot, and may never occur until the student is ready. Readiness
is the prime receptor ingredient that must exist in the student
before learning, recognition and retention can occur. Readiness
can be created through inspirational teaching. Inspiration motivates,
removes doubts and creates success where success should not exist.
The flight instructor must plan each lesson and the total sequence
of lessons for a continuity of inspiration based upon successful
steps of achievement. More often than not it is the outside influences
that present the readiness problem. Finances, personal life,
job security, job success, adverse weather, aircraft inspections,
scheduling, or health all contributed to the ongoing delays,
frustrations, and irritation that constantly interfere with the
required readiness and inspiration. The student must be trained
to expect that there is little to nothing to be gained by trying
to do something about which nothing can be done.
Getting older
is one such. Have you ever driven for a distance over a very
familiar road and suddenly realize that you have not been aware
of what you did, what you saw, or of the passage of time. It
happens to many people while driving and a very similar sequence
can occur to pilots. This daydreaming can occur on long flights
and requires that the pilot find attention requiring exercises relating to
pilotage, navigation and radio. Be even more cautious when visibility is
indefinite due to haze or smog. Your eyes must be constantly
re-focused on the furthest visible point. Otherwise, your eyes will go
into a default focus that cannot pick up distant aircraft.
CFI
Hours
(The Question)
I took my intro flight a few days ago and when I asked my prospective
CFI how many hours he had, he said over 600 hrs. Is this a lot
of hours for a CFI? Does this guy have the experience in your
opinion? What is the > determining factor in selecting an
instructor? Do hours tell the whole story?
Hours tell zero of the story. Some people could instruct after
20 hours of dual better than their instructor with 10K hours.
Some people cannot teach well no matter how many hours they have.
Instructors aren't born, but good instructors are certainly gifted
with that undefinable skill of conveying information from person
to person. You can see it in the academic classroom; by the time
you are a sophomore, you know that "Professor Jones"
is to be avoided and "Professor Smith" is the one to
take EE-201 from. Jones may have a PhD, and Smith only an MS,
but somehow Smith has found a way to make the learning process
easier for students.
So is it in flight instruction. Instructors all have the same
basic skills, but some have that given gift to be able to convey
the information in a manner that you (the student) can assimilate
and use without further process. Some are just not so gifted.
That's the way of the world.
The chemistry works both ways. Some people I teach like I've
known them forever. Some I struggle with and finally suggest
that they find another teacher. Not only flying, but my academic
college students as well. The good instructor knows when they
just aren't getting through to the student and that another instructor
may have the key to their understanding.
Find an instructor that you learn from easily and all will be
well. I've got 4000+ hours, but I really don't know how well
I can teach you until we've spent an hour or two flailing about
in a flying machine.
Jim Weir
Written Post-Flight
Reports from CFIs
Here's another idea for instructors. Especially those with
web knowledge. I have a place on my web page where each of my
students can log in and see:
(1) upcoming lessons in PDF format
(2) past lessons and written reviews in PDF format
(3) all their personal information including total-time, endorsements,
ratings, etc.
I store all this in an on-line database. Not only does this make for a better learning experience, but it satisfies the FAA's record keeping requirements. If I ever need to retrieve training records for a student I just key in their certificate number and out pops every lesson they ever had with a written review of how they did.
I store info on all students including checkouts, BFRs and
written sign-offs.
Alex (awnews@electradigital.com)
Teaching To Be PIC
--Expose the student to adverse weather conditions that require flight
cancellations, SVFR, or local flights.
--Directional control is as important
on takeoff as it is on landing. Look back at 300' to detect any drift.
--Power movements are controlled smoothly using the finger as an index marker.
You can use the index finger as a marker for specific power additions.
--You must be aware of the present flap position and the required position for
what you are about to do. Due to relative winds flaps come up faster
than they go down.
--Teach PIC authority to student. ATC is your employee.
--When you allow technology to replace judgment you are on the way to becoming
a victim.
--The greatest hazard of technology is complacency. Fly with your
eyes out the window.
--Navigational basics of D.R. and pilotage must be taught and constantly
practiced.
--It is important to know where other aircraft are moving in
relationship to your position and movements. For now the radio and radar
help you know.
Instructional Accidents
The two types of instructional accidents with the highest fatality
rates: low-level maneuvering flight are 1/3 of fatal accidents
and midair collision are 1/6th. . Instructors
inadvertently allow a simulated emergency to become real. The rate of
instructional accidents continues to decline with fatal accidents being a very
small percentage of General Aviation accidents.
Liability
after an Accident is LIABILITY
Four requirements
--Duty to act or not act
--A breach of that duty
--A proximate causal relationship between breach and duty
--Damage to the victim
--The best protection is not to have property, money
and prospects.
--Every profession has exposure to liability and the vultures of society.
--Only by avoiding negligence and without assets can you be free from legal
assault.
--Any assumption of responsibility leaves you at risk of negligence.
--The concept of justice should not be associated with the application of law.
--To the flight instructor the subcategory of tort law of negligence should be
of concern.
--Negligence is the doing or not doing that which is reasonable to prevent
injury or damage.
--Expert witnesses to offer opinions
--Logbook entries must be complete, not cryptic
--Instructor self-protects by what student does not what is said.
--‘Expert witness vs finder of fact vs standard of care
--Duty determined by standard practice, FARs, state law or expert opinion
--Expert hired because of presumed testimony
--Legal proximate cause leading to harm
---Damage is a HUGE undecided.
---You can be sued for anything at any time and will be if you have money
Perception is reality
--Logbook entries should be legible and complete sentences
--Your reasonable risk iis o.k. until there is an accident
--Fly and think defensibly
--The purpose of instruction is to keep the student alive until he learns.
Responsibility begets Liability
--Legal responsibilities involve liability risks
--Applicable law does not equal justice.
--The definition of negligence applied determines liability
--Liability must contain duty, a breach of duty and damage
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