Page 5.33 (5343)
All About VFR Radio
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Contents
Quality, no punctuation, constant rate, phonetic
alphabet, words to avoid, saying numbers, call signs,
Frequencies to memorize, emergency, where to
find, short cuts, CTAF, multicom, UNICOM, ATIS, AWOS, ASOS, tower, ground,
approach, departure, ARTCC, FSS, flight watch,
Radio Use tuning direction, differences,
changing, headsets, speaker, flip-flop, 90 to 720 channel, keying, noise
canceling, hand mike, headset mike, hearing, talking, stepping on, radio check,
always the same,
Uncontrolled Airports, advisory,
altitude, position, place name is first and last word, full call Vs last three,
One minute weather, taxiing call, takeoff call, standard arrivals, local rules,
pattern calls, type of option, over-flying, aircraft to aircraft,
Controlled Airports, Tower, clearance
delivery, ground, 122.95, Class D, Class C, Class B, clearances, instructions,
read backs, progressive taxi, changing frequencies, repositioning, requests, when
to change frequency, the option, closed traffic, SVFR,
Radar Procedures, kinds of radar, limitations of
radar, ident, squawking, required, handoff, initial callup, special use
airspace, vectors, request vectors, advisories, altitude change, temporary
frequency change, termination of service, Airspace
Requirements , Identification only callup, complete flight/aircraft
info response, request, handoff, entry only on clearance, limited service,
kiss-off termination, clearance Vs contact,
Flight Service Station, By name
and listening on frequency, air filing flight plan, opening/closing flight
plans, position report, special requests, duplex radios, simplex radios, 122.1,
finding frequencies, getting assistance, DF steer, location by FSS, pilot
reports, weather, emergency,
Flight Watch, 122.0, weather only unless
emergency, above 6000’, 6am to 10pm, high altitude frequencies,
Emergency and Distress
Procedures, The C's, Get a VOR/DME fix,
Talking Airplane
Quality
The quality of your voice on an aircraft radio depends considerably on
how well you have positioned your microphone to your lips. A handheld mike
should be just touching your lower lip. A headset boom mike should be as near to
you mouth as you can get it. These are noise-canceling devices that are supposed
to limit the amount of extraneous outside sound that would otherwise affect
voice quality.
Another voice quality that is desirable is assurance. As a pilot you are supposed to be certain of what you are going to say. If you are insecure it will show over the radio, therefore it is well that you practice at least once out loud without keying the transmitter before saying what you want to say. Assurance shows up in how you say, what you say. Only experience and practice challenging radio situations can provide this voice quality. Once it works a few times for you it will build quickly.
You don’t need to shout nor should you whisper. Use a normal speaking voice and avoid saying familiar things like the aircraft number, your phone number or name at any different speed or inflection than the
other things you say. You might want to practice saying some words using the phonetic alphabet or even writing them as such if they appear to create ATC problems. ATC types are relatively fluent in using this method.
Punctuation
Airplane is usually spoken without punctuation. For those who have
educated speech patterns this makes necessary a difficult change. A pause in
aircraft talk is wasted time. When writing out your radio calls it is wise to do
so without any punctuation as well. When you practice your calls be sure to
leave out the punctuation.
Constant Rate
Speaking at a constant rate requires practice and careful consideration
of what you want to say. I always advise the taking of an extra large breath
even for brief calls until you master the process. The more even your speech the
easier it will be for others to understand. I have found it easier to identify
my aircraft first when making a brief call and at the end of long calls. It is
surprising how much you can say using well-selected words without pauses.
Remember, ATC types are trained expert listeners.
Phonetic Alphabet
There are several letters that first and numerals that come to mind when
spoken. FiFE for five, niner for nine, kEEbeck for the letter q, more. I have
found that the best way to learn the phonetic alphabet is to use it walking
among aircraft on the ramp.
Words to Avoid
ATC is more than a little annoyed when some words that range from
totally unnecessary to incorrect for the situation are used. Consider these:
"This is …" when preceding aircraft call sign, "over …"
when preceding a position call-up. Saying twenty-five hundred as the altitude
two thousand five hundred. Twenty-five hundred is a tachometer reading, There is
a difference and a pilot should know the differences. Feet, mile(s) should not
be appended to altitudes and distances since it is a waste of words not needed
to give meaning.
You will on occasion hear a double click of a mike button to signify ‘yes’
where there is no way to tell whence it came, The uses of "Roger",
"tally-ho", "no joy" and others have historic uses but in
the crowded airways of aircraft radio are inappropriate. more
Saying Numbers
General usage says that altitude numbers shall be stated in thousands
and hundreds, but in flying numbers above niner thousand are said differently.
11, 000 becomes one-one thousand, 18,000 is flight level one-eight. All higher
numbers are flight levels such as flight level three-four.
Call Signs
Aircraft call signs often lend themselves to variations of the usual. I
fly in a C-150 N99921 that commonly uses Cessna triple-niner-two one, I once
heard Charles Schultz get chewed out by ATC for calling the CB at the end of his
numerals as "Charlie Brown". I’m sure there are others.
Short Cuts
On clearing a runway the tower may tell you to contact .9. They expect
you to know that the entire frequency is 122.9. It could have just as well been
.6, .7 or .8
CTAF
The common traffic airport frequency is the published or even
unpublished frequency (122.9) used by all aircraft arriving or departing. The
procedures for use of the CTAF are the insurance policy for all aircraft using
it. When a tower closes at a towered airport, the primary tower frequency
becomes the CTAF and the airport functions as a non-towered uncontrolled
airport.
Multicom
122.9 is the universal uncontrolled airport frequency where no other
frequency is published. It is used just as is the UNICOM frequency. At times it
is a bit more freewheeling than the UNICOM with casual conversations and such.
In recent years there has been a significant improvement in the use of radio
communications.
UNICOM
If an uncontrolled airport has a published airport frequency it
is expected that all arriving and departing aircraft will use that frequency
much as a CTAF to give altitude, position and intention reports. The local
governmental agency determines the pattern altitude, pattern directions and any
special procedures.
ATIS
The Automatic Terminal Information Service is a weather reporting system
either remote or visually determined by ATC specialists in the tower of a
controlled airport. When the tower is closed the weather may be remotely given
by an AWOS or ASOS. The ATIS weather is updated every hour approximately
45-minutes after the hour but more often if required by weather changes.
The ATIS gives the weather, wind direction, velocity, and runway in use and
time. Every new presentation of the ATIS is identified alphabetically A (alpha)
to Z (Zulu). Aircraft arriving or departing are expected to give ATC the proper
identification of the current ATIS as part of their initial call-up. When the
tower closes any automated weather will kick in and be available on the ATIS
frequency. Then only the weather is given every one minute via the AWOS or ASOS
of available.
The ATIS, when tower is open is also available on the phone. This availability makes it easily available for the pilot to practice writing down the particulars as given in sequence. Not everything is of equal importance. Essentials are wind direction, velocity, runway in use, altimeter setting and identification letter. Ceiling and visibility become important when weather is a problem. The pilot is expected to know at what either ceiling or visibility influence flight decision changes.
AWOS/ASOS
These are automated weather reporting system with robotic voice transmission
by radio or phone. AWOS is automated weather observation system while the ASOS
is automated surface observation system; these take and broadcast weather to
various levels according to capability every minute. Pilots are expected to
broadcast on the appropriate frequency that they have the one-minute weather.
This is true at uncontrolled airports or when the tower is closed.
Facilities
Tower
Tower frequencies are published several places and should be made
available before required for use. The ATC specialists rotate through available
positions in the tower, which may include supervisor, clearance delivery, local
(tower word for runway flight operations) and ground. Multiple runways may be
split between two frequencies.
The tower frequency is responsible for all aircraft operations in the air and on the runway including the initial arrival to the runway and initial crossing the hold bars leaving the runway. He is not responsible for traffic separation except on the runway itself or to warn of other traffic though he usually does. Primary responsibility is to keep traffic flowing safely. Within limits two aircraft are allowed on the same runway. Traffic avoidance responsibility rests primarily on the pilots flying.
The tower controls a communications space extending from the ground up to an altitude usually 2500 feet above the ground and to a radius of 4.1 nautical miles. This cylinder of airspace requires that aircraft entering or leaving that airspace be in communication and on a clearance from the tower specialist. The clearance into will be to report at a specific point/distance. To get a clearance to land you must first make the required position report. Departing aircraft are cleared to takeoff and proceed on a specific departure direction.
Without radar I find it amazing that for nearly 35 years there have been no mid-air accident at Concord, CA. A few years ago CCR was the 9th busiest airport for hours of operation in the U.S. Now they have a Brite screen with an antenna 28 miles away. Doesn’t show aircraft all the time especially at and below pattern altitude. Some think the situation is worse than before since the radar target is intermittent and unable to be relied upon.
Ground
Unlike the tower ground is required to provide separation. All initial
ground instructions are essentially clearances yet the work cleared is seldom
used. It is used after ground has told you to stop or hold short for a runway.
Only then will ground use the word cleared to get you going again.
In the last few years the FAA has required pilots to readback ground control instructions. It was done in an effort to reduce runway incursions. An unintended consequence was that the readback of all runway assignments air or ground followed. With this background I have noticed a significant improvement in all IFR readbacks. Unintended consequences to the better.
Approach/Departure
In most radar facilities there will be segments of a circle by direction
and altitude in which some frequencies are specific to approach, others to
departure and most common for GA aircraft dual purposes for both. Only a few of
the frequencies are on sectionals, more are on the terminal area charts. Best to
have an AF/D for planning or be prepared to ask for a frequency.
If you are told to contact a radar facility by a tower they will give you the required frequency. They have already electronically told the facility to expect you on that frequency so you need only to give your identification and altitude.
Any initial call-up on a radar facility should be brief giving only identification and ‘over’. It is after ATC responds that you give all the information about your aircraft, position, destination and altitude. If you are arriving you must state that you have the proper ATIS alphabet letter information.
ARTCC
The advent of radar took many years to become totally nation wide at
altitude and always available close to terminals. The frequencies have risen
from 90 to 720. Years ago I flew across the country and had to make ‘arrangements’
with various facilities to find out how far I would need to fly to pick up
another radar facility to contact with my radio.
You can still fly across the country this way today but having at least one 720-frequency radio makes it easier. Different manufacturers have different methods of giving you the full range so study the manual before flying. ARTCC is the en route part of the radar system and the process of entering and being handed off is the same as for a departure from an airport. Differences are most often a matter of altitude. They need to know your initial altitude and your intended en route altitude.
FSS
The Flight Service Station is but a shadow of its former self. At one
time Northern California had about a dozen such facilities. Now there are only
two, Rancho and Oakland. However there has been an increase in the number of
RCOs. An RCO is a remote communications outlet. Knowing where the RCOs are helps
you know where to look for a frequency on a sectional. It may be of interest to
some to know that the frequency 122.35 is in two disparate places, in California
it is atop Mt. Tamalpais in the Bay Area but the same frequency 122.35 also
serves the desert regions of Las Vegas. Given enough time you will soon learn
that the VHF line of sight limitation has advantages when you can associate
frequencies from your home area with those far afield.
Because of the number of possible methods and frequencies used by the FSS it has a specific call-up procedure in which you include the frequency you are listening to. Some situations require that you must listen to the FSS through a VOR frequency while talking to them through 122.1. This means that there is a landline from the VOR to the FSS. Las Vegas area frequencies and procedures go all the way to Reno FSS. At altitude most any FSS can be contacted on 122.2 which is the only universal FSS frequency providing you are in line-of-sight range. When FSS stations were placed every 40 miles there were over 600 of them in the U.S. now there are less than 40 nation wide. Furthermore, in 2005 the FSS system will be privatized and could well cease to be a governmental agency.
Flight Watch
Flight Watch has one frequency nation wide, 122.0, for relatively low
level communications. Every FSS has a co-located Flight Watch specialist. The
Flight Watch also has a high altitude frequency for use of aircraft at altitude.
The frequencies are in the AFD. Should you be unable to use 122.0 you might find
the high altitude frequency will work. In California and Nevada the frequency is
135.8(4)? Except for emergencies, Flight Watch is supposed to limit its services
to weather information and PIREPs.
Knowing What to Do with What You’ve Got
Radio Use
When a pilot first enters an airplane he sees a significant similarity
in the instrumentation and controls but his security blanket disappears when he
sees the radios. The changes in electronic technology have made what you knew
even a year ago not what you should know today. Flying is not the greatest
hurdle in knowledge for today’s pilot. The need to know material lies in
navigational technology while still retaining the FAA required back-up skills in
older technology.
Tuning Direction
Time was that you turned the knob to the right to increase the frequency
number and to the left to decrease the frequency. This simplicity still exists
but only to a degree. Dual radios that required frequencies be rolled up or down
followed by preset frequencies and flip-flop radios. The setting of radio
frequencies and presetting of those to come in sequence is the new learning
curve. Not many left who remember coffee-grinder frequency selection of yore.
Differences
You need to learn as much about the radios in an unfamiliar aircraft as
you do about the aircraft itself.
Even the way to turn on the avionics system will vary. When in doubt look for a button to push instead of turn. Look for a button to pull as well. There is no end to the ingenuity manufacturers will go in making their systems unique.
Changing
Changing a frequency often may be accomplished by any one of three
combinations or an additional one that I haven’t found yet. What you want to
do is use the most economy of motion. This may include being able to return to
the previous frequency. You can flip-flop on the same radio, use a switch to
change radios,
use a control panel button or roll a frequency from another radio. Regardless, make a practice of preparing a written sequence of probable frequencies to be blended with your writing of actual frequencies used. Save such lists for future flights. Learn to use the radio while holding a writing instrument in your hand.
Headsets
Anyone who gets into a small aircraft without a headset needs his ears
examined. The cockpit noise is equated with being close to a rock band at 95
decibels. While plugs and muffs may help, what is really needed is
noise-canceling headsets. Paying the most money is not always the way to go. I
have owned three Bose headsets but have found that Lightspeed gives me the most
bang for the buck. Headsets usually have individual ear volume controls that
should be initially set for a volume slightly higher than required to correct
for the needs over full power operations.
Noise Canceling
Headsets that have noise canceling have inside the ear cups electronic circuits
that are so sensitive to certain levels and frequencies of sound that they are
capable of creating a sound wave that effectively erases the initial triggering
sound.
Intercom
At least one intercom I know of is used to turn on the avionics. They
all seem to work differently but essentially allow you to select and deselect
various combinations of communication and navigational radios.
You can choose the aircraft speaker or headsets or a combination which might
allow you to listen to the ATIS over the speaker while maintaining contact with
ATC. They usually have switches to select which radio is active for
transmission. Having several ways to activate a radio can present problems where
multiple users fly an aircraft. Different pilots have preferential settings that
require checking with a change of pilot.
Speaker
The speaker, in addition to pilot dual use can be used to make available
to passengers ADF stations while the pilot listens to ATC. Speaker quality is
generally poor.
Flip-flop
Flip-flop radios made available a two-for-one frequency availability.
With two you get four frequencies. I have found it advantageous in many cases
where I know the frequencies well to push the standby frequency into the active
and immediately put in a next frequency into the standby. Anticipation is as
important in radios as in flying.
90 to 720 Channel
With the advent of a greater need for more aircraft VHF frequencies they
had to come up with a way to make the changing of frequencies more selective.
Frequency interference with tube type radios was always a problem. Electronic
engineering along with the transistor made the difference. My personal
background in electronics stopped just when the transistor came into existence.
While the electronics is essentially the same the size made dramatic changes.
WWII radios were the size of microwave ovens with about twenty tubes. Today we
carry radios in our pocket. Much the same exists with aircraft radios where size
is determined by speaker and finger functions.
Keying
How and when you key the microphone switch makes considerable difference
in what is heard or not heard.
Before you key the microphone switch you must listen on the frequency to confirm that no one else is on frequency. If you don’t you may ‘step on’ someone already on frequency. New pilots trend to begin speaking at the moment they key the switch not realizing it takes a millisecond for the switch to activate the transmitter relay. This may cut off the first syllable of a spoken word. The same thing may occur at the end of a transmission. .
Hand Mike
It is of some importance that you become familiar using the hand mike.
You want to learn to use the radios, trim, flaps, and anything that you do with
your non-flying hand. When the boom mike won’t function the hand mike fills
in. The hand mike, like the boom mike is noise canceling and must be touching
the lips to do what it is designed to do. Begin your practice while taxiing
until proficient enough to use it in the air.
Headset Mike
It is the boom microphone that tends to become a major headset problem.
It is noise canceling and should be touching or near touching the lips. The
noise-canceling of the microphone means that it is so directional that noises
from the side lose so much of their volume as to be nonexistent.
Hearing,
Having your hearing is one thing, Keeping your hearing is another, but
using your hearing is the most important thing of all. Flying with unprotected
hearing is one of the more foolish things a pilot can do.
Wearing protective covers for your ears is a logical thing to do. With some
assurance you can believe that what you do to preserve your hearing will be
rewarded. When things go wrong with an airplane it is usually your hearing that
sounds the first alarm. Listen to the engine, wheels, wind and any other part of
the flying environment that makes noise. Listen carefully when every sound is
right so you can more readily hear when things go wrong.
Talking
Talking on the radio is an art form. The idea is to say as much as you
can to give full meaning to what you want to get on the airways in a minimum of
words. This takes plenty of thought, knowledge, and planning.
I teach with recorders that keep track of everything that is said. I suggest that students make a written record of what they say. Then I want them to look over what they have written to look for places where it could have been said with fewer words while getting across to full meaning. Using this post mortem system you will soon see greatly improved radio communications
Stepping On
The busier the frequency is the more likely it is that someone will
speak at the same time as you do. I find it frustrating where a student will
wait for an opportunity to key the mike only to continue waiting. It is almost
as though they are waiting for someone to talk so that they can step on their
transmission. It takes some experience to recognize when a communication
requires a response. It is recognizing in the response that you will have an
opportunity to get your words over the airways. This takes careful listening.
Radio Check
When you key the transmitter you have no way of knowing just how well
they words come across to your listeners. The highest rating of radio
transmission is called, "Five by five". This pair is a rating of
volume and clarity. The combinations of numbers from one to five have
historically been used to describe radio transmissions. A problematic
transmission might be described as three by two. The evaluation is based upon
recognition of thousands of similar transmissions.
Always the Same
To those who are unfamiliar with using the radio I must say that the
most significant thing to be learned is this. In aviation the same situations
occur over and over, on the ground and in the air. Likewise, the same radio
procedures from ATC to pilot or pilot to ATC repeats again and again.
You as the pilot can greatly simplify what you say by positioning the aircraft so that what you say is essentially the same every time. Once you have mastered one situation, move to another. Don’t try to learn it all at once, master one situation at a time but always be working on a new situation. The words change but the sequence of the words will always be the same.
The better you know the area, the better you can position the aircraft, the better you know the area and position the aircraft the better you will know what to say.
Initially, it is up to the pilot to determine whether at a given airport the tower is closed, there is a UNICOM or there is no UNICOM. Where a tower is closed, the CTAF is used to address traffic at the airport. Where the airport has no tower and no UNICOM the frequency to use is 122.9. Where the non-towered airport has a published UNICOM frequency the preferred communication is to first call the UNICOM , then if there is no response address all transmissions to traffic. In all unicom or traffic transmissions the name of the airport is the first and last word of the transmission. Common courtesy expects that any aircraft arriving, leaving or at the airport respond to the call of another aircraft giving information related to location, intentions and active runway.
Sectional charts will have at the location of the uncontrolled airport a representation of size and length of runway along with airport elevation, right traffic for any runways that are not standard left traffic, CTAF frequency. Runways that are not surfaced or more than 1500 feet of surface are shown as circles. Services and lighting are a part of the representation.
Altitude
Aircraft arriving or departing an airport where a ‘traffic’
transmission occurs asking for advisories is expected to respond with airport
name, "traffic" type, call sign, location, and altitude any advisory,
intentions and airport name.
Position
When giving your position and altitude in response to a traffic call you
should use the full uncontrolled airport ‘traffic advisory sequence but
abbreviation of call sign would be in order.
Place Name Is First and Last Word
The logic behind this transmission procedure is that often there are on UNICOM
frequencies many overlapping transmissions from airports using the same
frequency. This is most common on 122.8 since it is the grandfather of UNICOM
frequencies and is only slowly being replaced by other frequencies.
Full Call vs. Last Three Alphanumeric
After your initial call-ups and arrival at an uncontrolled airport it is
common practice to use only the last three call letters of your aircraft. The
more traffic there is the more you can reduce your communications
One-Minute Weather
An aircraft arriving at an uncontrolled airport that has an embedded
AWOS or ASOS should use the radio to advise any ATC facility they are in contact
with that they have the ‘one minute weather’. From this weather and the
information on the sectional the informed pilot should be able to make an
appropriate arrival at the airport. Left traffic is always standard unless the
sectional has RT by the runway with its directional number.
Taxiing Call
At uncontrolled airports taxi calls are not required but courtesy would
indicate that one should report clear of the runway when knowing that other
traffic is in the pattern or waiting to depart. A taxi call relating to the
aircraft leaving the tie-down area for the runway I consider to be somewhat
excessive use of the radio.
Takeoff Call
Any departure from an uncontrolled airport is best preceded by a 360
clearing turn with a takeoff call stating which runway you are using and your
intentions be it to remain in the pattern or your direction of departure. My
personal preference for giving a departure direction is to say on course to
(airport). An on course departure is far more specific than crosswind, downwind,
or straight out.
Standard Arrivals
While the FARs are relatively non-committal as to what constitutes a
standard arrival at an uncontrolled arrival, the AIM states that the 45-degreed
arrival is to be preferred for safety and is the only one I teach.
Local Rules
The pattern altitude, direction, hours of operation, noise limitations
are all determined by local governmental agencies. If you are unfamiliar a phone
call may help you from making a dumb mistake.
Pattern Calls
Aircraft in the pattern should keep other traffic advised when on final
as to the type of landing they intend to do. Any departure call should include
the intended direction or destination.
Type of Optional Landing
A landing that is not indicated otherwise is expected to be a full stop
and taxi clear of the runway. Every over type of planned landing should be
included in the radio call made on final. Short approach and long landings
are specific types as are touch and go, stop and go, planned go around and
aborted takeoff
Over-Flying
If it is not possible to determine the active runway and its particulars
prior to arrival at an uncontrolled airport, the pilot’s landing decision
should be determined by over-flying the airport at twice the pattern altitude.
At that altitude you should determine the active runway and plan making a
45-degree entry to the downwind. First you read the windsock. You will be
landing into the wind as much as practical and this means you will fly up the
windsock and out the larger end.
I have found that if you know the runway pattern direction is left then you
should circle the windsock in right turns. If the pattern is right circle the
windsock in left turns. The last turn should be wide so as to cross the runway
numbers at right angles. Look to the top of your heading indicator and note the
45-degree marker on the side toward the runway and use the heading there as your
45-degree outbound direction. Make a course reversal well away from the downwind
line and lose altitude while making a course reversal and entering on the
45-degree heading to downwind. Draw this for both left and right patterns to see
how well it works. It does.
Aircraft to Aircraft,
By prior arrangement one airplane can use radio to communicate with another
aircraft. The frequency is 122.75 122.85 is search mission aircraft to
aircraft.
Sacramento Executive and North Las Vegas are the only two non-federal that I have used.
The ATC specialist using the tower frequency has control and communications with all aircraft within the airspace cylinder defined by the airport classification. Every aircraft entering or leaving this cylinder must
operate on a clearance given by this ATC specialist. The in tower name for this position in "Local". Traffic avoidance is still the pilot’s primary responsibility. The pilot is required to follow any clearance or directions given by ATC. Only by declaring an emergency can a pilot legally disobey ATC.
Clearance Delivery
The tower has a position where the specialist is expected to keep the
ATIS current and to work with any radar facility to feed back and forth IFR
flight plan to the local and ground specialists depending on whether there is an
IFR departure or arrival. Clearance delivery usually reads the clearance to the
pilot and confirms the readback.
Clearance Data
Very busy IFR traffic towers will have a Clearance Data specialist to
feed data to the clearance delivery specialist. Less busy towers combine the
clearance delivery position with the clearance data position.
Ground, Control
The ground controller is responsible for all taxi instructions which are
essentially clearances without the word cleared included in the instructions. He
is responsible for the readback, traffic advisories, and traffic avoidance. He
will, at less busy airports, include in his duties of clearance delivery and
clearance data.
Yet the FAA us concerned with runway intrusions? Too many chiefs and not enough Indians?
122.95
122.95 is a nearly universal frequency used at towered airports in the
United States as the UNICOM.
This is the frequency used in the air and on the ground to order fuel, services, taxis, phone calls or most any other thing a pilot might need. The available times of these services vary widely among towered airports.
Class Delta
Most common of towered airports are Class D. There are semi-standard
dimensions of the Class D cylinder.
Usually altitude is 2,500 feet AGL with a radius of 4.1 nautical miles. All arrivals and departures must be on the tower frequency and using the transponder where radar is available. On charts Class Delta airspace has a dashed line in blue with extensions in magenta. Inside the blue circle will be a small square indicating the height of the airspace.
Class Charlie
This airspace has magenta lines indicating altitudes of footprint,
shelves out to ten miles with cutouts where needed to adjacent airports. An
encoding transponder is required under, in and above Class C airspace.
Communications are required to leave and enter but an aircraft is not required
to operate under a clearance or control. Item: A transponder-less and even NORDO
aircraft can piggy-back along with a properly equipped aircraft into and out of
Class C airspace. SVFR is available as well.
Class Bravo
Class B airspace extends up to 10,000 feet and out to thirty miles.
Encoding transponders are required in, under and above as well as radio
clearances into and out of the airspace. There is no SVFR but clear of cloud
flight is can be authorized by clearance. A specific clearance is required into
and out of this airspace and all aircraft are required to be under ATC control.
Clearances
A clearance is a very special procedure in which the pilot is
responsible for avoidance of terrain and other aircraft. A clearance gives
altitudes, routes and procedures that must be followed. Only declaring an
emergency allows a pilot to violate the clearance.
Instructions
Instructions are given to pilots as when getting vectors. Turn, climb,
descent and airspeed instructions can be and are given to pilots and must be
obeyed unless an emergency is declared. The pilot gives up much of his PIC
authority when operating under an ATC clearance. All instructions and clearances
should/must be readback. See below.
Readbacks
Readbacks are expected to greatly improve taxiing incursions on the
ground. Radar readback of instructions have been increasingly a part of general
aviation for the past twenty years. IFR readbacks have been standard almost
since the inception of IFR.
Progressive Taxi
At unfamiliar airports the pilot is well advised even after reading back
instructions and using a taxiing diagram of the airport to ask for the
additional help given by ATC with progressive taxi instructions. This is a
method by which each turn, stop, and movement is given sequentially by ATC. Once
in the dark of morning, ATC sent a truck to guide me through an airport
construction maze. When in doubt get all the help you can.
Changing Frequencies
Do not change a frequency if you have not protected yourself by having a
way to get back to it. My practice of sequentially preparing and writing down
frequencies on a kneeboard have saved my bacon more than once over the years.
Flip-flop radios are great for two frequencies but what if you need to go back
three? Rolling and adding frequencies from one radio to another. The new GPS
systems give you needed frequencies as a matter of course. Do not let
complacency lead you into a situation where a needed frequency is unavailable.
If it happens, and it will, be sure you know where and how to get an unknown
frequency
Repositioning
I make a practice of repositioning my aircraft to where I can clear both
pattern bases and final before contacting tower for takeoff clearance. I know
many who do not. Like many things in life, safety is a relative matter. That
said, all you need to do before contacting tower is to make your request to
ground that you want to reposition before contacting tower and that you will
hold short of the runway prior to contacting tower.
Requests
Once you are into the system there will be occasions where it is your
desire to ask something of ATC that is not part of the ‘getting there’
process. You can request a frequency change to FSS, Flight Watch, UNICOM,
or MULTICOM. The request may be accompanied with a
remark as to how long you will be off frequency or do not plan to return.
Leaving a radar facility frequency requires only notification that you are
leaving. Failure to advise an ATC facility of your changing frequency often
results in the facility making repeated ‘blind’ calls for your aircraft.
Reminiscent of ‘Car 54 where are you?" days.
When to Change Frequency
Knowing when and how to change a frequency is an important part of
flying skill. On the ground frequency you are expected to change to the tower
frequency after you have completed your runup and are ready to takeoff. On
landing, when you have crossed the hold-bars of the runway you should not change
frequency until so advised to do so by the tower. You should request the change
when the tower forgets to tell you. You NEVER
change frequency until crossing the hold bars even if tower tells you to contact
ground when clear. . Leaving a tower-controlled airspace does not need a request
to change if you are already outside their airspace. Inside their airspace a
request IS required.
Never leave a radar frequency until the frequency change is authorized. If this is a radar handoff you will change the radio frequency but keep the same transponder code. Changing frequency at your request often means that your transponder code must also be changed. But not always, especially if the change is only temporary.
The Option
The option applies only to an aircraft at a towered airport in the
pattern doing a series of landing types. The clearance for the option approves
the aircraft to make a full stop taxi-back landing, a stop and go, a touch and
go, a low approach or a go-around. The option clearance may exclude the stop and
go or any others if the tower so specifies. Do not make a low approach at an
uncontrolled airport if in any way it could be considered a buzz-job. As a
buzz-job there are FAA types who would nail you for FAR violations related to
flight closer than 500 feet to other aircraft that might be taxiing beside the
runway. Happened!
Closed Traffic
Closed traffic is another way of saying the aircraft is going to do a
series of patterns and landings that may vary in type. This is a new-math term
for the process. The term arose some 30 years ago when ATC found it necessary
for such a term to exist. Prior to that time a pilot would ask the tower for
touch and go’s but the closed traffic with the option gave variations
technically not available for being cleared for touch and go.
SVFR.
Special Visual Flight Rules are provided to pilots in Class D and C
airspace when weather conditions in that airspace has a ceiling less than 1000
feet or a visibility of less than three miles. Separately or together that
weather is below VFR minimums. Under these conditions standard VFR flight in
these airspaces are not allowed. Only one aircraft at a time is allowed in the
airport airspace that is below VFR at a time unless one of the aircraft has the
other in sight and can maintain visual preparation.
However, the FAA came up with a way in which flight in these conditions could be made by VFR only pilots and their aircraft. They made SVFR rules. These rules have a new minimum of clear of clouds and visibility of at least one mile in the direction of flight. ATC had to have at least one-mile visibility before issuing a SVFR clearance out of, in or into the airspace. There is NO altitude restriction.
If the D-C tower has a prevailing visibility of one-mile it can issue, on request, a SVFR clearance into or out of the DC airspace. The pilot must request a SVFR clearance including the aircraft identification, position and direction of entry or departure. The departure clearance will come from either clearance delivery or ground.
The clearance will specify the aircraft identity, a direction, any altitude restrictions, maintaining SVFR and
reporting requirements. The arrival SVFR clearance will specify the aircraft identity, direction, reporting requirements while maintaining SVFR and runway assignment with expected clearance.
The essential for the pilot who requests, and accepts a SVFR clearance is that he have intimate knowledge about the airport and its surrounding area. This applies to both departures and arrivals. The SVFR departure clearance applies only to the airport airspace. Regardless of the direction, if the space outside the airport airspace has below VFR visibility you will be limited to fly within 700 or 1200 feet of the ground. It would be very possible for a departing pilot to fly into worse conditions than that at the airport. My recommendation for SVFR departures would be never depart SVFR unless weather is improving and forecast to continue improving. The alternative might be to ask for and obtain a SVFR departure to climb in the pattern until reaching VFR.
The arrival to an airport in below SVFR conditions and then requesting a clearance into the airport airspace in SVFR conditions with a clearance has advantages over the departure because you have more knowledge of the airport weather. Even knowing this can work to your disadvantage if you can’t safely get to the airport. I have had this happen and almost flew around the airport before finding a way to a runway. No fun and I was below 200 feet of the ground. Once again take a SVFR clearance only if conditions are improving.
Since you must rely on slant range for visibility to the ground you might consider over-flying a SVFR airport cylinder. Get a clearance to descend in the airspace say to 1500 AGL and then if conditions permit you to see the airport get your SVFR clearance to descend in the pattern to the runway. This has the advantage of avoiding the slant range visibility required from a low-level arrival. When you know the visibility is a low-level problem, get on top and come down over the airport.
ProceduresIFR or VFR, being made and the destination. Today all radar signals are digitally displayed in rooms as bright as day on screens so bright that everything is easily seen. No more dark rooms with florescent screens to be interpreted as an art form.
Additionally the transponder in its Mode C capability will give a read-out of altitude. The altitude is given by the transponder when it is triggered by the incoming radar pulse to respond not only with identification but its altitude. The altitude is given by the aircraft’s blind encoder. This is an altimeter that is behind the instrument panel and does not have an altimeter face or needles. Instead, it is designed to operate only with a barometric setting of 29.92 from which response the radar station could convert its signal into the proper barometric setting and altitude for display on the radarscope.
Kinds of Radar
There are numerous differences in radars and their uses. A doppler radar
is capable of measuring the difference in speed between two sides of a storm and
thus allows forecasters to predict where it will go much as a spinning top.
There were radar altimeters in WWII and now in light aircraft can give absolute
altitude over the surface. Radar could be synchronized with the bombsight to
drop bombs on targets. The air to ground radar for navigation was a primary
function and worked best where land and water provided distinctive signals. The
ground to air radar won the Battle of Britain. Radar was used to aim large
cannon on ships and to hit aircraft overhead. Radar was even put into the shells
that used the radar to explode when close without having to hit a target.
Limitations of Radar
Range of most radar is limited to line of sight which depends on
altitude. Even today placing a radar antenna on a mountaintop greatly extends
its range. The problem with this is that the radar beam spreads out over
distance and decreases the ability to interpret proximity of two nearby objects
like aircraft. The closer the radar antenna is to its targets the better it see
them. Radar cannot see through terrain and not very well through heavy rain.
Only the transponder has been able to improve the ability of radar to see better
and farther.
Ident
The key to the transponders operation is its ability to take a
relatively small and hard to see radar echo return into an informational target
that includes aircraft identification, type, speed, altitude and destination.
Squawking
The way a specific aircraft is identified from all others was by the
radar specialist calling for the pilot to push the ‘ident’ button on the
transponder. In years past this caused the target on the screen to ‘bloom’
in size, today the digital word ‘ident’ appears on the screen along with
other information about the target.
Item: The term ‘squawk’ arose from the British code word ‘parrot’ used to identify their transponder invention.
Required
Transponders are required in, below and above all Class B and C
airspace. Transponders are required in Class Alpha airspace above flight level
18 and above 12,500 feet. An aircraft with operating transponder is required to
have it turned on. At times ATC may require that a transponder be placed on
standby if it is causing a problem. The transponder can be turned ‘on’ and
not be encoding its altitude as required. The ‘alt’ position of the switch
turns on the altitude encoder part of the system.
Initial Contact
When first entering into the radar system, the pilot may be given a
squawk before departing or he may enter by calling the radar specialist on the
selected frequency after giving identification and saying ‘over’. The
specialist will get back to you when ready so you can give the all the pertinent
information about your aircraft and flight. You are now in the system and any
subsequent contacts with a different specialist will be called a handoff.
Handoff
The handoff is a point in the radar system where the aircraft is
transitioning from one sector into another sector of radar control. The handoff
begins when the first specialist sees that you are about to leave his sector or
airspace. He will click on your target on his screen and it will begin to blink
on and off. Up the road the next sector specialist will see the blinking target
and will click on it to indicate that he has accepted the target into his
sector. The pilot knows nothing about this process yet.
In years past this switching of sectors took considerable time on the radio between the specialists. Now when the first sector specialist sees that your target has stopped blinking, he will tell you to contact the next sector and will give you the name and frequency of the sector. Your call will include a full identification and your altitude situation, which might consist of climbing out of, level, descending out of. The entire system depends upon the reliability of your altitude information to provide separation of aircraft. Every new specialist contacted is required to have you confirm your altitude. Therefore you can save time by including in every new contact your altitude.
Special Use Airspace
SUA is a catch-all term that covers all the airspace set aside for the
military, government and security reasons to restrict the free use of flying by
pilots. Some of the reasons for SUA no longer exist but once established they
tend to go on forever. In my opinion there are some MOAs (military operations
areas) that have not been used for years.
Now we have TFRs (temporary flight restrictions) that can exist on a moments notice and some once established make a joke out of the temporary designation. If you are planing a flight, you are well advised to check with the FSS to see if you may come in conflict with a TFR. This check should be renewed for every leg of a long trip.
Vectors
A vector is where an aircraft in contact with a radar facility is
directed to make a turn so as to fly in a particular direction. This can be done
to head you toward a destination, for traffic avoidance, for spacing or
avoidance of SUA. When given a vector, you should comply immediately and then
ask any questions. The tone of voice from the specialist usually connotes the
urgency involved.
Request Vectors
On occasion a radar facility may give you a point out of nearby
aircraft. They do this on a job load-permitting basis. When you are unable to
locate the traffic, it behooves you to request a vector by saying,
"…will accept vector’. What this does is tell the specialist that you are willing to make a turn to provide separation from the traffic you don’t see. More often than not the controller will tell you that the traffic is no longer a problem. When in doubt always request a vector.
Advisories
When radar first became available to VFR general aviation it existed in
two forms for some reason. One form was called "flight following" and
the other was ‘flight advisories’. The difference was that with flight
following it was more of a casual watch over your progress to you destination.
Advisories would warn you of traffic, terrain and route problems. Today, the all
encompassing use of radar is called ‘advisories’.
Altitude Change
Whenever you are in radar contact you are expected to have initially
confirmed your altitude and subsequently you are expected to advise ATC of any
planned changes. If a climb or descent is planned your final level flight
altitude should be given.
Temporary Frequency Change
Any time you have a reason to make a call to a FSS, Flight Watch, a
local AWOS/ASOS or a UNICOM feel free to ask ATC for a frequency change. In
doing so tell who you are changing to and for how long you expect to be on the
new frequency and that you will report when back on frequency. Never leave a
radar frequency without notification.
Termination of Service
When you are receiving radar services under VFR and outside of tower
controlled airspace you can request a termination of service by asking for a
frequency change. Likewise, a radar facility may terminate your service under
VFR by just telling you that radar service is terminated and for you to squawk
VFR.
Identification Only Callup
An aircraft seeking to enter into the radar system, Class B, Class A, or
Class C is expected to make the initial call-up using only the facility name,
his aircraft identification and the word "over". This is because these
ATC specialists have many duties beyond talking on the radio. The entry of a new
aircraft into his sector is a relatively low initial priority coming after all
the other things on his ‘to do list’. Be prepared to wait a minute or so for
a response. For this reason it is important to think a considerable distance
ahead of the airplane and the arriving situation. Listen on the frequency and
gauge the lead-time by the apparent activity. There are times when this planning
is a good idea at airport arrivals as well.
Complete Flight/Aircraft Info Response
Once ATC has responded to an identification only callup it is important
that you have all your ducks in a row and give everything required. ATC needs
your identification in full, type of aircraft, position, altitude, intentions
and ATIS/AWOS/ASOS.
Request
Frequency a contact to an ATC facility may be just a request for
information. In that case your initial identification only call-up ends with the
word ‘request’ instead of over. This call could be to ATC ground, tower,
radar facility or even FSS or Flight Watch. In the last case, Flight Watch, the
request must be limited to a weather problem. Otherwise, most any question
related to assistance or information will apply.
I have asked an FSS to use a ground line to get the weather of a distant AWOS. I have asked a Class B specialist for an expedited route through Class B in order to get to an FBO before closing and making our car keys unavailable. I have asked an en route radar facility specialist to confirm than there would be someone waiting to give us fuel at an uncontrolled airport in the middle of New Mexico. I have called in the blind on a frequency to request an aircraft higher than I was to close a flight plan that I would not have been able to close otherwise. (This was BCP- before cell phones)
Handoff
The radar handoff from one controller to another is semi-automated using
transponder responses. Other handoffs can be from ground to tower, from tower to
approach, from approach to a CTAF
Entry Only on Clearance
Lone Class Bravo airspace requires a clearance to enter from the ground
and the air. Class Alpha above eighteen thousand feet requires an IFR clearance
to enter. Additionally there are IFR flight situations that con only be flown
under the cloak of an IFR clearance.
Limited Service
There are times when the available personnel or equipment limit the
ability of ATC to provide all the comprehensive services ordinarily available.
This happened in Southern California during a total power failure as well in the
north east of the U.S. during a total power loss.
Kiss-off Termination
This form of cessation of radar services can occur at the option of the
radar specialist should he feel that the radar reception from your flight
altitude is inadequate for him to assume separation capability. Under these
circumstances you may advise that you will remain in radio contact as long as
possible. Should you be flying an aircraft with limited radio frequencies, ask
for a frequency that will become available further along you route. Works.
Clearance Vs Contact,
When you have established radio communications with a radar facility
specialist it is expected that the specialist will advise you when he is seeing
your aircraft as a radar target on his screen. At this point he will say,
"Radar contact". That he sees you is all that it says. If you are on
an IFR flight and are about to proceed for an instrument approach, the
controller will at some point clear you for the approach and give you a handoff
to the next frequency.
Personally I have let my use of the FSS decline for my actual flying except for information related to forecasts. With so much of my flying done in radar contact a flight plan does not provide the layer of safety it used to. Once they are gone or very nearly so it is going to be harder to get some of the more casual help you sometimes need.
By Name and Listening on Frequency
An FSS is contacted by name followed by the word radio, such as Oakland
Radio. Then you indicate the frequency you are listening on. I have covered much
of this on a previous page. If you really need a frequency try 122.2
Air Filing Flight Plan
On occasion you may get airborne without a flight plan. Unlike IFR there
is no such thing as a VFR pop-up flight plan. You must give the whole nine-yards
of the flight plan over the radio. It helps if you have the form available in
the cockpit but if you don’t the specialist will walk you through the process.
As an instructor I insist that my students file flight plans along with position
reports so that I can phone the FSS and keep track of their progress. I like to
have at least one air filed flight plan in my training program just to prove
that it can be done.
Opening/Closing Flight Plans
The usual process for a flight plan is to get a weather briefing update
and then go through the flight plan form with the FSS specialist. Slow down when
you get to your name and address. Once in the air and prior to contacting a
radar facility you should contact the FSS by name and giving your identification
followed by "over". The specialist may be on any one of a dozen
frequencies but he will get back to you ASAP. When he comes on repeat your
identification and that you are on a VFR or IFR flight plan from here to there
and the time after the hour you left the ground.
One of the most common errors in flight planning is remembering to close the flight plan. I have forgotten several times. Now when I file a flight plan I put my wallet into a different than usual pocket. I have found that not finding my wallet triggers my memory to close the flight plan.
Failure to close a flight plan triggers a search program. It begins with a phone call to the number on the flight plan. More often the phone number is of no help. This initiates an airport radio search to be followed by local authorities driving around en route airports looking at tail numbers. By this time the ELT satellites have scanned the region seeking ELT transmission signals. One of the first items to be checked in the event of a crash is to confirm that the ELT antenna is correctly attached. I have found the best thing I can do is to tell someone close to me not on the flight what my plans are as well as deviation options. Today a cell phone is a necessity.
Position Report
If this is to be a long flight it is best that you occasionally contact
an en route FSS and give a position report. This means to give your
identification, where you left and your destination. It is best that you are
able to give your present location on your route, the ETA to a next reporting
point and the name of still the next point if it occurs prior to your
destination. The more accurate you are in doing this the better. If for some
reason you are flying low your radar target will not be tracked by radar. If you
do not reach your destination and close your flight plan, your position reports
will have made the search area much smaller. A position report is a cheap
insurance program.
Special Requests
I have made special requests of every ATC facility you can name and
never has my request been refused except once when I contacted Reno Flight Watch
to request a frequency. On this occasion I received a three-minute lecture on
the Flight Watch duties and never did get the frequency I wanted. Make your
request to your present contact and in the process say that you are willing to
make a temporary frequency change if suggested.
Duplex Radios
Duplex radio use is not all that common. The only instance I know of is
when a landline from an FSS extends to a VOR. In the box will be the frequency
of the VOR it will not have a line under the frequency. This means that if you
turn the volume up on your navigational frequency you will be able to hear the
FSS respond to your calls on 122.1. On the top of the box by the VOR will the
frequency 122.1R. The R means that the FSS can hear any communications on 122.1.
Most frequent problem is failure to change the volume control on 122.1.
Simplex Radios
A radio that both talks and receives on the same frequency is called
simplex.
122.1
This frequency is one half of a duplex radio communications system where
the receiver is the VOR frequency.
Finding Frequencies
Next to knowing frequencies the next best thing is to know where to get
help finding frequencies. The last frequency on your radio should be tried first
using the word request and the type of frequency you want. The same request
could be made to the closest FSS frequency or 122.2. Altitude is a factor for
all frequencies since they are all line of sight. Some FSS frequencies are
available from mountaintops and can be used for great distances. 122.35 covers
most of the Las Vegas desert region.
Getting Assistance
Although 121.5 is the emergency frequency and is monitored at low volume
at all ATC facilities. MY first choice in an emergency would be to use the
frequency where I already have contact or at least a listening watch. I make it
a practice to maintain a listening watch on a local facility frequency even when
doing air work in the practice area.
DF Steer
It was not until doing the preparation for a winter flight from Concord
CA to St. Marys ID did I notice that the DF steer is still alive and kicking. It
had existed for many years in many of the old FSS and I had nothing on any of
the charts indicating it was available in California. I did find a reference in
the Seattle sectional. I plan to run a DF steer with my student when we get in
the area. Specialists are required to have practiced DF steers at regular
intervals and I know they appreciate every opportunity to practice.
The DF steer has a land based radio detector that has a PPI scope that will indicate the direction from which a signal is received. This is one line of position but no distance given. The rest of the DF steer location process requires pilot cooperation through the getting of VOR cross radials to the DF line of position. With a radial from a VOR crossing the line of position and having the pilot turn to a specific heading from this point it is possible by a series of DF lines of position and VOR radials to provide a pilot with guidance to any location.
The process begins when the pilot makes contact with an FSS that is DF steer capable and requests a DF steer.
The specialist proceeds to ask a series of questions related to aircraft identification, type, number of passengers, fuel aboard, altitude, weather conditions and situation in general. The pilot is asked to key his microphone for five or ten seconds and then to give his aircraft identification before releasing the key. This period is needed to allow the direction finder to home on the signal. The pilot may be asked to climb since the process requires line of sight signals.
Immediately the pilot will be asked to turn in the frequency of a nearby VOR and give the radial from that VOR as shown on the OBS. The specialist will draw the two lines on a chart. Where they cross is a moving point but close to where you are. Then you will be asked to turn to a particular heading and hold it while again keying the microphone for a few seconds and then giving your ID. Once again you will be asked to pull a VOR radial from the VOR and relay it to the radial numerals to the specialist. With the dots connected you can be given direction to fly to a particular destination. You can even be flown down the line of position to the location of the direction finder.
Location by FSS
In addition to DF the FSS specialists are required to practice the use
of VOR location as an emergency location procedure in the event that radar
facilities are down. The process is similar to the DF steer except that two VORs
are used to locate on a chart cross radials. Then a heading is given and another
pair of radials are crossed to get a line of flight. This is much the same as a
pilot would be capable of doing for himself but the plotting is done at the FSS.
Do it just to see how it works. They need the practice.
Pilot Reports
The giving and getting of PIREPS, (pilot reports) is the most accurate
weather you can get. The problem is that not enough pilots are practiced and
proficient in giving these reports. You should have in your flying toolbox the
sequence of giving a PIREP. Since Flight Watch is a weather operation my
preference to giving a PIREP is to flight watch by I have given them to an FSS
and to a tower. Over time you will get to know and appreciate the FSS
specialists.
Weather
Weather consists of visibility, clouds, winds, turbulence and
obscurations. Although there is a form for giving a weather PIREP the ATC
specialists can walk you through the process. It is important that pilot be
trained in the foregoing processes because when you need the kills to use them
it is too late to learn for the first time.
Emergency and Immediately
One of the greatest defects in emergency training is failing to teach
anticipation in declaration of the emergency. Most pilots are optimists and wait
too long to declare an emergency. They think that they are supposed to know how
to get out of difficulty without help. I have never known of a pilot to get into
trouble for a premature declaration of emergency. If you don’t practice some
of the procedures above you may be reluctant to try them when you need them.
When in contact with ATC, pilots can use the word "immediately" to
avoid an imminent situation. The use of this word means that you have
a situation that need attention to prevent it becoming an emergency. Low
fuel or unknown fuel could be a case in point.
122.0
I used all its services and only last year participated in an experiment to see how far it could reach into the lower San Joaquin valley of California.
Above 6000’
If you are 6000 AGL you should be able to reach Flight Watch. If you can’t
make contact with an FSS. The two specialists are within five feet of each other
and have identical facilities for giving you information about the weather.
6am to 10pm
It is important that you know the time limits of Flight Watch else you
will be disappointed while making useless calls.
High Altitude Frequencies
At these times it is well to know that Oakland Flight Watch has a high
altitude frequency for the use of airlines of 135.7. The frequencies for other
areas are available in the AF/D the same hour limitations still apply for this
frequency because it is the same specialist.
Get a VOR/DME fix so they will know better where to look.
The Emergency C’s
---Climb
---Communicate
---Confess
---Comply
---Conserve
---Consult (Checklists)
Go To Page 5.34 Radio Procedures for
Concord
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