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PTS NEED to KNOW Material
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Contents:
PREFLIGHT INSPECTION; … COCKPIT MANAGEMENT; …Passenger Briefing ;
…STARTING ENGINE; …Engine Starting; …Engine
Failure; …TAXIING;
…PRE-TAKEOFF CHECKLIST; …RADIO USE/LIGHT SIGNALS; …Controlled Airport Radio; …Uncontrolled
Airport radio; …Light
Series; …TRAFFIC
PATTERNS; …AIRPORT-RUNWAY LIGHTING-MARKING;
...Weather Briefing Card;
...Undisturbed Preflight; ...Flight Planning: …Leaning; ...Exhaust
Temperature Gauge; ...Little
Things that Make a Big Difference; ...What's
It All About Alfie?; ....Do
FARs and Training Improve Safety?; ...Technology
Is Here to be Taught; ...Level Flight; ...How Many Hours to Solo;
...What to Do When You
Don't Know What to Do; Finding Airports as a Skill;
Where is that airport? ..Night
Location Is Difficult for Many; ,,, Remembering the
Little Things Makes a Difference; ...Making choices
Is the Most Used Constant in Aviation; ...What’s So Important About;
...Whitt and Wisdom; ...What
is an FAA Reference to Every Student and Pilot; ...Glossary;
II AREA OF OPERATION
A.
Task: PREFLIGHT INSPECTION
REFERENCES:
AC 61-21, Airplane Handbook and Flight Manual
PREFLIGHT INSPECTION PARAMETERS
Your SOP is CRM(Standard Operational Procedure is Cockpit Resource
Management)
--Preflight yourself, the weather, the flight and the airplane.
--Your standard operational procedure is crew resource management
Inspects using a checklist, verifies conditions meet safe flight standards
P 1. Has knowledge of inspection requirements, items, reasons,
and detection of defects.
P 2. Uses checklist as reference during inspection. All fluids,
controls, security, structure, hazards.
P 3. Verified plane is capable of safe flight.
EX Fuel, contamination, oil, controls, structure, security, required
instruments, ice, water, and cabin items
The proper fuel for a C-150 is aviation 80/87 with red dye which
indicates performance octane. The higher number is octane at
full power. This fuel is relatively high in lead content. Lead
acts as a lubricant. The lead vaporizes when the engine is hot.
At low power operations the lead may not vaporize and can form
small beads in the lower spark plugs. This can short out the
plugs and cause a rough engine. Leaning the mixture causes the
engine to run hotter and can vaporize the lead beads. Leaning
is used to adjust for most economical engine operation.
The 100 LL (Low lead) currently available has other additives, other than lead, that can cause shorting of the spark plugs. These additives are more difficult to burn off by leaning. There are additives that can be added to 100LL to make it lubricate and perform like 80/87 fuel.
We drain sumps for sediment and water each of which is heavier
than gas. We can use higher octane fuel if lead fouling of plugs
is prevented by leaning. Some aircraft are allowed to use auto
fuel which vaporizes differently. All fuel has water in it as
does air. Under certain conditions this can contribute to carburetor
ice. Fuel is flight insurance. Fly by time and allow ample margins.
A pilot needs to be certain that the fuel quantity is measured
and with the aircraft level. A slightly off level aircraft can
easily have three gallons less than full in each tank. An aircraft's
fuel capacity will vary according to position on most all ramps.
The C-210 is notorious for this problem up to 60 gallons.
If the engine is cold or hot the oil stick can be in accurate. Oil creeps up a cold dip stick and a hot engine may contain oil not showing on the stick. Oil should be checked prior to every engine start. Metal in the oil is a sign of possible damage. Use full oil on long flights. Some oil consumption is normal, excessive use requires an engine check. Oil samples can be tested for metal particles. The analysis can show how the engine is wearing.
Flight controls are checked for security, movement linkage, and position. Piano hinges and locknuts are checked. Any flight failure of controls in flight must be reported to the FAA. Trim position should be noted both on trim wheel and with elevator at neutral. Trim should be set for takeoff. Failure to set trim can cause excessive control forces at liftoff.
Any evidence of structural damage, untoward looseness or movement, unexplainable fluids, odors, or visual defects can, in the opinion of the pilot, render the aircraft unairworthy, The pilot makes this determination prior to each flight.
Depending on flight conditions certain basic instruments are required for flight, engine, navigation and communication. If any required instruments are missing it is up to the pilot to determine the legality of flight. For day VFR a compass, altimeter, fuel gauge, oil temperature, oil pressure are required. Night VFR requires position lights, beacon, power source, and a flashlight. Class Delta airspace requires a radio while a Classes Bravo and Charlie requires radio, and an encoding transponder.
All chocks, chains, and locks need to be removed. These keep the plane from being damaged by strong winds. Making chains too tight can cause damage. Failure to remove any of the items can cause loss of control while starting to taxi. Failure to remove control locks is disqualifying.
Any water in the fuel must be completely drained prior to flight. Failing to fill tanks is a common cause of water accumulation in fuel. Water condenses from the air space of the tank. Water from a fueling source may take 15 minutes to reach a drain sump. Water should be removed from windows for visibility.
Excess water in the fuel can cause engine failure. No flight should take place until all ice or frost has been removed from all flying surfaces. Ice cannot be effectively removed except by applying some form of heat. The rough surface caused by frost or ice prevents the smooth flow of air necessary for flight. Frozen water in the control linkage system can prevent control movement. Cold grease in the throttle cable can make changes difficult to impossible.
All cabin items must be clear of all controls, unable to affect instruments (such as compass), and secured in the event of turbulence. The FAR's require that the pilot have all available information including weather, terrain, frequencies, airport elements, aircraft performance, and limitations. The soundness of judgment is integral to all items of the test. See instructional material on night flight and radio. In a preflight, everything that looks wrong, is wrong.
B.
TASK: COCKPIT MANAGEMENT
REFERENCE; AC 61-21, Pilot’s Operating Handbook,Approved
Flight ManualCOCKPIT MANAGEMENT
PARAMETERS
Briefs passengers on safety belts and emergency procedures.
Uses Checklist.
First standardized on U.S. in 1978 aircraft. Required as of 1984.
Should result in 35% reduction in fatalities if everyone wore
them. 23% of fatalities were not wearing shoulder harness at
the time. FAR 91.14 requires pilot briefing on use of belts and
harness but no requirement that you make them wear them.
P 1. Prepares for flight in ordered sequence without useless
repetition of motion. Has materials available and a planned place
for everything.
P 2. Security of loose items confirmed.
P 3. Briefs passengers on use of belts, doors, windows and environmental
controls, emergency procedures, uses checklists.
P 4. Organizes flight materials in sequence of use.
P 5. Uses all appropriate checklists.
EX Safety, efficiency, organization, preparation, availability.
Seats, belts, doors, and brakes -
The safety of any flight depends upon how well the pilot utilizes what has been prepared. Sectionals must show the entire route and be arranged and folded so that they are in sequence. A WAC chart capable of showing the entire flight is desirable. C H E C K L I S T S must be sequential, convenient, and USED. Do not put behind the seat anything you might need on this leg of the flight. Have your manual, computer, plotter, and scratch paper beside you. Have pens and pencils hanging, clipped and stuck all over. Stick your radio log where it can be seen and won't fall or blow away. Have your sectional always open and ready. The navigational log should be available as cross check and reference. Arrange lapboards so that they are lengthwise and when turned over can be read. Use pen clip to keep C H E C K L I S T items in sequence. Use 3M yellow stick pads to keep track of ATIS, X-ponder codes, etc. Write down all ATC assigned frequencies and codes. Read back for confirmation.
Have a C H E C K L I S T for every change in aircraft configuration. Preflight, pre start, start, post start taxi, run up, pre takeoff, takeoff, post takeoff, climb, level off, checkpoint, descent, pre landing, landing, post-landing, and shutdown. At the very least a C H E C K L I S T must include all that is covered in the aircraft manual. Have reminder tags for opening and closing flight plans. Have a time card to keep track of takeoff time, checkpoint times, ETA's and fuel changes.
All aircraft since 1976 are required to have shoulder harness.
Seat belts must have metal to metal connectors. Pre-l976 aircraft
may be expected to have retro-fit shoulder harness. It is not
enough to see that everyone has a belt/harness on for takeoff.
The PIC must make certain they know how to release themselves.
--If every seat had shoulder harness serious injury and fatalities
would be reduced by 35-percent.
--Only 23 percent of those involved in serious injury and fatal
accidents were wearing a harness.
--Only the front seats were required to have shoulder harness
since 1978.
--Every forward facing seat must have a shoulder harness since
January 1985.
--91.14 requires pilot briefing of passengers.
--Once you have worn a custom inertial or fixed belt you will
never be satisfied with the diagonals.
--Be sure that all baggage is properly tied down.
Many light aircraft have seats that fail to lock. On takeoff acceleration this can cause an accident. Wriggle side to side as well as back and forth. Doubly confirm that seat is locked by pressing down on locking bar instead of relying on the spring loading. A rigid behind the seat lock may be used.
Some doors have double locks or unfamiliar mechanisms. It is the pilots responsibility to assure that doors are secure but he should also be certain that passengers know how to open them.
See instructional material related to checklists.
Passenger
Briefing
--FARs require passenger briefing prior to every flight.
--Not just how to put on the belt but how to undo it as well.
--How to operate the door handle to open the door
--Options available should the engine quit.
--How to prepare the cockpit for an off-airport landing
--Wait for the plane to stop and then get out.
--Leave room for others to get out.
--Leave the aircraft in a 45 angle to the rear.
--Don't light a fire yet.
--At the end of the briefing say, "Briefing completed".
C.
Task: STARTING ENGINE
Reference AC 61-21, AC 61-23,
AC 91-13, AC 91-55; Airplane Handbook and Flight Manual
ENGINE STARTING PROCEDURE
External power source, clearing, checklist
P l.. PRE START CHECKLIST Pilot knows basic elements required
for engine start. Checklist is available, used, primed according
to conditions
P 2. Clearing Positions aircraft to avoid starting damage to
anything in the area. Clears in all directions, window open,
area scan
P 3. Controls, brakes, power set, on, low. Checklist sequence
for start.
P 4. POST START CHECKLIST Available, used, completed sequentially.
EX CHECKLIST, key, mixture, prime, pump, throttle, propeller,
magnetos- start, brakes, CHECKLIST, normal, hot, flooded, jump,
hand. CHECKLIST, radio, flaps, beacon, oil pressure, power setting,
amps, suction, ATIS.
The key is not put in until ready to start. It is possible for
the magneto to be grounded (shorted) even with the key off and
out. Some keys can be taken out in other than the off position.
Most aircraft have a start position on the key switch that is
spring loaded to return to the both position when released. Make
sure this spring works. If the battery is weak the starter relay
may not be activated or the bendix spring may not engage the
flywheel. If this occurs get assistance.
Mixture is used to mix fuel and air at 1 to 16 weight ratios
for best performance. If the mixture is too rich the engine loads
up, loses power and as the combustion chamber is too cool the
additives in the fuel can cause the spark plugs to short out.
This usually occurs on the lower plugs and causes a rough engine.
This condition can be corrected by leaning the ixture. Much of
this fouling can be prevented by leaning during all ground operations.
Running the engine at advanced power in a lean condition raises
the temperature so as to melt any fouling on the plugs.
Most engines (over 115 HP) have an accelerator pump as part of the throttle. This allows priming or filling the carburetor by pumping the throttle. However, if more than two pumps are used it is possible to over fill the carburetor and cause fuel to enter the engine compartment. On starting this fuel can ignite and cause a fire. For this reason a primer pump is provided that allows fuel to be injected into the intake manifold adjacent to the cylinders. This is the preferred method of priming especially in colder weather. The primer has a 'keyed' lock which if not set properly can greatly affect smooth engine operation. Always check that the primer is locked. You should always rotate the primer clockwise while seeking the locking pin. Turning plunger counter-clockwise can unscrew it from the retaining ring and create a massive fuel leak behind the panel.
Not having the primer in can cause the vacuum created from
the intake stroke to suck additional fuel through the primer
lines causing an excessively rich condition. In normal cruise
this just tends to provide slightly less power and consume a
lot of extra fuel. At lower power settings, the excessively rich
mixture can cause the engine to run rough or even die completely.
All low wing aircraft, as well as some high wing, are required
to have an auxiliary electric fuel pump in addition to the engine
driven pump. an inoperative fuel pump is a no-fly requirement.
This is an additional checklist item for start, takeoff, tank
changes, emergencies, and landing.
After priming the throttle should be set so as to allow the
engine to start at low RPM. The first few moments of operation
do not have proper lubrication and so increases wear. If oil
pressure fails to rise 30 seconds after starting the engine should
be shut down. The checklist oil pressure check should be done
at start, run-up, climb and periodically such as at checkpoints
as a regular process.
Prior to every start the area around the propeller must be cleared.
The clearing must be both visual and by saying "clear".
Due consideration must be given to what is behind the plane as
well. Certain runup areas have restrictions posted.
Normally foot brakes are used in holding the aircraft position
while starting but a hand or parking brake can be used if their
release is part of the checklist. A common accident cause is
having the plane roll forward after starting because of concentrated
attention in the cockpit. This is particularly likely to happen
at night. The proper functioning of the brakes should be checked
immediately after starting.
C H E C K L I S T should be used after starting and should include
RPM, radio, flaps, suction, ammeter, brakes, and oil pressure.
(Oil pressure is listed last since it takes a few moments to
register in colder weather.) It is a good practice to lean the
mixture after starting since this reduces additive fouling of
plugs. The common use of 100LL fuel has greatly increased the
probability of additive fouling, thus increasing the need for
good leaning practices.
Flying is too expensive to waste time due to inefficient starting
procedures. The performance part of starting should demonstrate
efficiency, anticipation, and smoothness. Hurried, jerky, repetitious,
and unplanned movements should be avoided. The most common fault
in the starting procedure is failure to use the checklist before,
during and after.
Starting with the engine hot requires using the manual recommended
procedure. This usually suggests using no prime since there will
be fuel fumes in the engine. The first try is the best opportunity.
Flooding occurs through over priming. Raw gas can usually be
smelled or seem coming from the engine compartment. It is wise
to wait for the fuel to evaporate. The engine can be turned over
with the mixture full lean and the throttle advanced until the
proper starting mixture is reached. The flooded start should
be avoided since it is hard on the starting system. In any event,
if the engine does not start within a six blade cycle of the
propeller it is wise to stop and start over. The starter can
overheat, expand in its casing and burn out.
The most common battery used in aircraft is 12 volts but in later
and larger aircraft 24 volt systems are becoming common. The
battery should be allowed to rest after every 30 seconds of cranking.
Poor terminal contacts is a common cause of hard starting. Many
aircraft have an auxiliary terminal which allows for jump starting.
This should be done by line personnel with a qualified pilot
in the cockpit. Great care needs to be exercised by all concerned.
This is especially true if the jump start must be done from the
engine compartment.
Hand propping of the engine is very dangerous. The best answer
to this is "don't" If an explanation is required...It
is usually possible only on smaller engines. The plane should
be chocked and the tail tied down low to increase propeller ground
clearance. A qualified pilot must be holding the brakes and the
engine properly primed with magnetos on. The hands should be
held flat against the blade and pulled down while the person
moves his body well clear. Four tries are usually sufficient
if it is going to start. If the FAA finds out, you could be in
trouble due to interpretation of the required equipment rules.
Item: An aircraft with a starter that requires hand propping
is not airworthy.See instructional material.
Engine
Starting
Engines must be female. Each one has its own particular mode
of being coaxed into starting. Engine starting procedure may
vary critically with atmospheric temperature and engine temperature.
The priming technique involved is, likewise, a variable. The
pilot's operating handbook specifies steps to be used in starting
a specific engine. Usually the POH will not explain the reasoning
behind selected procedures. Fuel injection starts are best made
following the POH.
Priming with the primer is preferred to pumping the throttle.
The primer squirts fuel directly into the cylinder intake port
or induction system. Lycoming engines usually have a throttle
pump which can be used to fill the carburetor. More than two
pumps of the throttle can flood the system and cause fuel to
become available for an engine fire. When the engine fires the
fuel ignites in the engine compartment. The primer has a 'keyed'
lock which if not set properly can greatly affect smooth engine
operation. Always check that the primer is locked.
A fuel fed engine fire can be with the engine not having started
or having started. In the event of such a fire, pulling the mixture
and running the engine at full power is the first option. The
idea is to get all the fuel out of the engine compartment and
perhaps blow out the fire. Shut off the fuel selector as well
and get out. Little or no damage is the common result of such
an event.
If the engine has not started, pull the mixture, shut off the
fuel selector and continue using the battery to crank the engine.
This tends to suck any fire up into the exhaust system where
it can do no damage. Be prepared to bail out.
Engine
Failures
The preflight and runup may not uncover an engine problem.
However, the pilot must fly always under the assumption that
a failure may occur. Pre-decide your options before you begin
your roll. As the flight progresses, move your options. It is
important to always know where you are and have an option in
mind.
Every flight route has two entries to a downwind for your pre-selected
option. The more nearly normal you can make your power-off arrival
the better your chances of a successful landing.
D.
Task: TAXIING
REFERENCES: AC 61-21, Airplane
handbook and flight manual
TAXIING PROCEDURES
Brake check, controls free, checklist
P 1. Shows knowledge of safe taxi procedures by speed, power/brakes,
clearances, controls, eyeballs. Positions controls for wind direction.
P 2. Clearances and Routes. A clearance allows everything but
an active runway. Stay on the yellow lines. Acknowledge and follow
clearances.
P 3. Brake Check Function before and immediately after moving.
P 4. Controls direction and speed without excessive use of brakes.
You cannot taxi too slowly. You should hold controls as though
for 40 kt winds. Use minimum power required. Brake only to stop
and turn sharply. Skill is demonstrated by smoothness and anticipation.
P 5. Avoids other aircraft and hazards.
P 6. Completes appropriate checklist in sequence.
EX speed, power, brakes, clearances, controls, markings
Most aircraft accidents occur while taxiing. The desirable speed
is as a fast walk but may be slower. Excess power is required
to initiate movement but is then reduced immediately after brakes
are checked to allow movement with minimum power and brake use.
Since the brake pads are very small, application should be minimal
and smooth. Avoid riding, pumping, and abusing. Power changes
must be smooth and in anticipation of requirements. Considerable
power and braking may be required for sharp turns. The aircraft
cannot be turned if it is not rolling however slightly.
Taxiing is a last acquired skill since it requires unlearning.
The flight controls are held in such a manner as to prevent strong
winds from overturning the plane. This requires positioning as
though diving away from following winds and climbing into head
winds. ATIS wind should be used until the wind sock is visible.
Observe the wind direction as a number on a properly set heading
indicator. Then hold and change the flight controls accordingly.
Skill in this requires divided attention in and out of the cockpit.
This is one of the performance factors integral to the entire
test.
Since taxiing is done at reduced power it is necessary to anticipate
carburetor ice. If the engine has had insufficient time to warm
the heat application may be ineffective. Develop a sensitivity
toward unexplained drops in RPM. Icing is most likely to occur
at low rpm.
ATC clearances to taxi allow movement everywhere except on active
runways. Acknowledge all commands or clearances that have the
word "hold" in them since ATC needs to know that you
plan to stop. If ever in doubt, request taxi assistance. Landing
aircraft should taxi clear of the runway by crossing the hold
bars. Departing aircraft should never cross the bars of an active
runway without a clearance from the tower.
An Invalid Taxiing Instruction by ATC
5-13-04 Had an unusual event today. Student called for taxi clearance
and ATC gave a clearance that was not possible from his location. ATC gave
runway assignment and taxi route that is used nearly 90% of the time. But this
time we were clear the other side of the airport from the assigned route. I
stopped student from replying and had him tell me what his clearance said.He
knew his route was via Echo and the Clearance was to go via Alpha. What he
didn't know was how to tell ATC that they had given an invalid clearance.
Afterwards, I thanked the controller for giving me a completely new twist in giving taxiing instruction.
Y'All,
I don't know why I always get blamed for the things I do. But in response to
the request below I will give some techniques I have used to improve my
survival odds above those of just plain dumb luck.
Jay wrote:
"I'd be especially interested in comments from Gene Whitt, who said ATC
has been trying to kill him for 40 years, and anyone who might recognize the
airport from the runways described."
Gene's reply
It takes more than luck to be an old pilot.
--I always clear the final and bases before taking a runway.
--My preferred departure request is always a "270 on course to my
destination.
--This puts me above the pattern altitude quickly and clear of the usual
arrival paths.
--The "On Course" request is a far more specific notice to other
pilots of my intentions and path.
--When I an at anything other than pattern altitude I always inform ATC, not
that it means anything to them, I am talking beyond ATC to any aircraft on the
frequency.
--When I arrive at an airport I never report at a reporting point. I call-up
1-2 miles to one side of the point and always at an altitude that is other
than ending in thousands or five-hundreds. Usually at 2300 or 2700 above
airport elevation.
--I do not arrive on IFR approach corridors
--When choice exists I will take the smaller runway.
--My preferred arrival is a base entry
--My most interesting arrival was a base entry over the numbers at pattern
altitude with a 270 short approach to the runway.
--If a conflicting aircraft fails to give altitude I query ATC to find out
altitude.
There are others but this should give some ideas of how to survive at a Class
D airport.
Gene Whitt
See instructional material on taxiing.
E.
Task: BEFORE TAKEOFF CHECKLIST
REFERENCES: AC 61-21, Airplane
Handbook and Flight Manual
BEFORE TAKEOFF PROCEDURES
Checklist, reviews airspeeds, distances, emergency procedures,
departure procedure, checklist.
P 1. Position: Utilize minimum space, face wind, hazards, divided
attention
P 2. C H E C K L I S T Shows knowledge of how the proper takeoff
check will include specific items, why these items are important
and how a malfunction is hazardous. Checks engine, controls,
gauges, switches, (State position/reading)
P 3. Positions aircraft in run-up area by local requirements,
wind and space utilization.
P 4. Seats, belts, doors, windows, security Physically check,
push, move etc. Divide attention inside and outside the cockpit.
P 5. Reviews takeoff performance airspeeds, distances, emergency
options, and departure procedure.
P 6. Moves from run-up area to runway area so that takeoff will
provide both a clearing of the approach area and a minimum of
time after clearance. assures no conflict with traffic prior
to taxiing into position.
P 7. Getting clearance and including the On takeoff final checklist
of Time, X-ponder, emergency alternatives.
P 8. Takeoff: Confirms engine and aircraft performance desired
is achieved prior to liftoff. Sets flaps and controls
P 9. C H E C K L I S T completed.
EX Run up area, run up, instruments, cockpit preparation, performance
preparation, pre-takeoff, post-takeoff.
You should leave as much space for other aircraft as possible.
Do not allow the wing to be over the hold lines. Face the wind
since this improves engine cooling and makes possible release
of flight controls. Make sure that propeller blast will cause
no problems. Attention is carefully divided between in and out
of cockpit.
C H E C K L I S T - Controls are quickly, smoothly checked for
yoke position/control movement. Trim position is checked. All
power additions and reductions should be done smoothly. Power
is advanced and magnetos checked. Changing from two magnetos
to one should cause a drop in RPM due to a decrease in combustion
efficiency. If the drop exceeds allowances or the engine runs
rough clearing a fouled plug may be necessary.
For clearing fouled plugs, raise the RPM to at least 2000 and
lean the mixture until a slight drop in RPM occurs. A few seconds
in this position will normally vaporize any fouling. If excess
drop or roughness persists cancel the flight. An inoperative
spark plug will be cool.
Correct functioning of the carburetor heat is indicated by a
slight drop in RPM due to enrichment caused by the unfiltered
less dense hot air. If the engine has not had time to warm or
if the day is as hot as the engine a drop may not occur.
During the run up of the engine all engine gauges should be touched
and noted as being acceptable. Oil pressure and temperature should
be in the green. Ammeter should be registering and checked under
load. Suction pressure should be between 4.5 and 5.4. Flight
instruments should be rechecked and set.
Altimeter is set and then noted for error from airport elevation.
The suction operates the gyros of the attitude and heading indicator.
Heading indicator should be set by carefully noting the numbers
on the compass that the lubber line is between and then set accordingly.
Saying the number aloud may help avoid mistakes. The attitude
indicator usually need not be reset. The turn coordinator is
electrically driven.
The magnetic compass can be affected if ferrous metals are allowed
near it. It has adjustment screws which allow for radio and aircraft
effects. These adjustments are done on a compass rose and readings
noted on the deviation card by the compass. From the North turns
initially indicate the wrong direction on the compass. Any acceleration
East or West shows a turn to the North that has not actually
occurred. ANDS is the memory device for this.
The airspeed, altimeter, and vertical speed are part of the pitot
static air system. The pitot has ram air while the static air
hole admits undisturbed air. Pitot heat, alternate air and breaking
glass in VSI are some in flight procedures used to correct problems.
Use of cabin air as a static source causes altimeter and airspeed
indications to increase slightly. (An emergency source of static
air may be obtained by breaking glass in VSI.)
After all elements of the pre-takeoff list are completed pilots
get caught with getoffitis and neglect cockpit preparation
such as closing window, reviewing departure clearance, desired
initial heading, first checkpoint, next frequency, positioning
emergency checklist, and availability of charts and papers. Use
the examiner as a lapboard if necessary. Don't put any possibly
needed papers or computers behind you.
Due to greenhouse effect, the closing of the cabin usually occurs
just before departure. Doors and windows can accidentally open
in flight. This usually occurs on takeoff due to differential
cabin pressures. No harm will occur if flying the airplane is
attended to. Doors will open only a few inches and windows usually
have limit hinges. The possible startling effect of noise and
wind is the greatest hazard. If in flight closing is difficult,
return for landing.
The FAR's require that all belts and harness be used on takeoff
and landings and kept on required crew members while in flight.
All passengers must be advised as to how to fasten and unfasten
belts. All loose items in the cockpit should be secured in pockets
or straps in the event of turbulence. Set all flight controls
for the desired takeoff performance, obtain clearance and taxi
so as to clear the runway approach area. It is not necessary
to acknowledge takeoff clearance since the controller can see
your movement.
A clearance for immediate takeoff is best refused unless you
are ready and in position to determine the safety of doing so.
Acknowledge all ATC instructions to hold. Normal takeoffs are
initiated with back pressure to minimize nose wheel contact and
permit lift off at Vso. This reduces wear and tear on the aircraft.
Vy, best rate of climb, is obtained by lowering the nose. Climb
at Vy gives the most altitude in terms of time. If insufficient
speed and runway exist for safe takeoff or an unexpected event
occurs in the cockpit, be prepared to abort the takeoff.
Use takeoff C H E C K L I S T to note time, X-ponder, and emergency
alternatives. Place your emergency checklist in a ready position.
Once airborne and an emergency occurs at an altitude insufficient
to permit returning for landing then land in most suitable area
within 30 degrees of heading. No return to the same runway should
be attempted unless sufficient altitude for a 240 degree steep
turn exists. Every pilot should practice this with power off
at a safe altitude and then allow his own additional altitude
as a margin of safety. You should have an After Takeoff CHECKLIST
See instructional material on training.
III AREA OF OPERATION
AIRPORT AND TRAFFIC OPERATIONS
A. Task:
RADIO USE/LIGHT SIGNALS
References: AC 61-21, Ac 61-23; AIM
Acknowledges and complies with instructions
P 1. Shows knowledge of procedures for use of radio and light
signals.
P 2. Uses appropriate frequencies, limitations, emergency, reception
problems,
P 3. Uses standard phraseology for airport, approach, FSS, other
P 4. Acknowledges properly and complies with instructions.
P 5. Uses appropriate NORDO procedures.
P 6. Interprets and complies with ATC light signals.
EX Limitations, 121.5, 122.2, 123.6, 122.1/VOR, 122.0 traffic
area, 122.95, failure, approach control, Classes of airspace,
DF, uncontrolled airport, Light signals. Since radio failure
is no longer a common event the pilot skills in use of light
signals is poor.
Controlled
airport radio
There are several essentials to good radio work.
The first essential is:
Know who you want to talk to or, at least, how to find out
whom you should be talking to. Every airport and ATC facility
has a name, use it. Over the years the FAA has changed the names
of airports back and forth between the location and a local personage
several times. You can often judge a pilots age and experience
by what he says on the radio.
The second essential is:
Know how to set the desired/required frequency into the radio
in the most useful sequence. Write all the expected sequences
down before you start the aircraft. This means that you should
have a set of memorized frequencies in common use, a chart with
required frequencies, and a current A/FD with the frequencies.
Flying without frequency knowledge is as bad as flying without
looking where you are going.
The third essential is:
Know where you are going to be when you start talking, or
know enough to know that you don’t know where you are going
to be. In either case be as precise as you can. Don’t state
your position until you are over it. Use the time getting there
to practice what you are going to say.
The fourth essential is:
The way you say what you say. If you are having orientation
problems, say so by including the word Unfamiliar immediately
after your aircraft identification. Don’t try to ‘fake
it’. If you want help, say so. The busier the frequency
the briefer you want to be. Just the essentials. If a place or
procedure is offered by ATC with which you are unfamiliar, say
so. Request to overfly field above pattern altitude for directions
from ATC.
VHF aircraft radio is limited to line of sight but as FM, is
static free. Most radios have 360/720 frequencies allocated for
communication and navigation. The frequency should be monitored
before use to avoid dual transmissions which cause receivers
to whistle. A stuck mike switch can jam the frequency.
At night when the tower is closed or before it opens you should
use the published tower frequency for all air/ground operations.
Arrivals should overfly to determine active, enter on a 45 at
pattern altitude. If parallel runways exist, only the major one
should be used and standard left patterns followed even if right
patterns are normal with the tower open.
Basic communication requires:
Name of who is being called,
Who you are,
Where you are with pertinent data,
What you want.
FSS, Flight Watch, and Approach Control callups are slightly
different. Good phraseology requires that punctuation not be
used. Words like miles, feet, runway, and over a position are
best omitted. Plan what you are going to say before keying the
mike.
121.5 is the emergency frequency and is constantly monitored
by ATC facilities. Aircraft should also monitor. Including it
in the shutdown CHECKLIST is a good practice. Use it only in
an emergency. If you are already on a frequency and in contact
do not change unless directed. The ELT when activated by shock
transmits on 121.5 as a warble. Emergency transmissions should
say each word or phrase three times. Include identification,
location, nature of problem, intentions.
122.2. is a common FSS frequency for use when a discrete frequency
is unknown or unavailable. The blue rectangles at FSS airports
and at VOR's list discrete, duplex (122.1/VOR freq. Note: as
of 10-1-91 122.1 and listening on the VOR is being discontinued
in most U.S. locations) Since an FSS may have up to 12 available
frequencies the call up must say what frequency is being listened
to. "Fresno Radio, Cessna 1234X listening 122.2" Since
so many frequencies are available select the one giving the best
line of sight potential. VOR's and RCO (remote communications
outlets) have land lines allowing long distance use.
RCO Change:in 1999 The AFD will list RCO/RGOs together. The
Remote Ground Outlet (RGO) is usually at smaller remote non-tower
airports. These are specifically for clearances, cancellations
and FSS contact prior to takeoff or after landing. I have found
the one at Truckee handy when I am too low to make FSS contact
via their normal frequency for the area. Now at Truckee, CA.
123.6 is the airport advisory frequency or AAS from the airport
FSS at a field without a tower but having a FSS. This frequency
is used for takeoff, traffic advisory, and landing. Ukiah and
Red Bluff are current, but to be closed, examples. "Ukiah
Radio, Cessna 1234X listening 123.6 Cloverdale at 2000 landing
advisories Ukiah"
122.0 is the Flight Watch frequency used nation wide as a weather
information service. It is a good frequency to monitor in flight.
Flight Watch has area wide remote radios which require you to
give the name of your nearest VOR on call up. "Oakland Flight
Watch Cessna 1234X Squaw Valley over" Pilot reports (PIREPS)
can be exchanged as well as enroute/ destination weather.
Airport Class D airspace extends to 4.1 nautical miles and 2500
feet. FAR's require communications to enter, leave and within
unless specifically exempted. The Automatic Terminal Information
Service (ATIS) should be obtained before contacting Air Traffic
Control (ATC). The ATIS is given alphabetical phonetic code names
for identification. Prior to taxi and after clearing runway Ground
Contact is required. "Concord Ground Cessna 1234X East Ramp
taxi with (ATIS)" "Concord Tower Cessna 1234X Clayton
at 2000 landing with (ATIS)" Every ATA has 122.95 as a standard
unicom frequency for fuel services. If more than one Fixed Base
Operator (FBO) is on the field then other frequencies may be
used. Many towers operate part time as indicated with an * after
the tower frequency. Operational times are on the tower frequency
tab of the Sectional. When the tower is closed left (standard)
traffic is used for the runway in use even if is the right.
In the event of radio failure try to determine if it is receiver
or transmitter by squawking 7600. Communicate in the blind ("Travis
Approach Cessna 12234X transmitting in the blind Rio Vista at
2000 planning landing at Concord") to the nearest radar
facility. If the receiver is functioning they can determine your
intentions by asking questions to which you respond on the IDENT
feature of the transponder. If the receiver is out, transmit
in the blind all your positions, altitudes, and intentions just
in case the transmitter is operational. ATC can work traffic
around one plane without a radio. At a controlled airport enter
the Class D airspace at twice pattern altitude, determine the
longest active runway by wind or traffic. Depart from overhead
so as to arrive on a 45 degree downwind entry to the runway,
turn downwind, base, final and watch for the green light gun
signal.
The basic procedure for Approach Control, Class B airspace, Class
C airspace and, TERSA's, is the same except Class B airspace
cannot be entered without clearance. Class C airspace requires
only that communication be established. If the proper frequency
is unknown call a FSS for aid or use the tower frequency tab
of the sectional. "Bay Approach Cessna 1234X over"
This callup is necessary because work procedures may require
the controller to delay recontact with you until he has finished
some other operation. On contact give ATC your position, type
aircraft, intentions or request. Be sure to write down the squawk
before trying to enter it into the transponder. Set the transponder
on standby (stby) before resetting the assigned code; then place
to ALT. Acknowledge the squawk by repeating the code as is done
with all headings, frequencies or traffic. "Radar Contact"
should be acknowledged. On being given a squawk turn the transponder
to standby (stby) before resetting the code. IDENT only if commanded.
A Direction Finding (DF) steer can be obtained from a properly
equipped FSS just by making a request. With the advent of radar
the DF is seldom used. The DF equipment has the capability of
line of sight detection and orienting to your transmitter. ATC
will ask you questions regarding your aircraft equipment, flight
conditions, fuel, and intentions. You will be directed to set
your heading indicator and to fly specific headings while occasionally
keying your transmitter. You may be given VOR frequencies and
asked to give OBS readings FROM a VOR. By simple procedures the
operator can determine your position. Further fixes can direct
you to almost any destination. Always repeat back headings and
instructions to avoid misunderstandings. Avoid doing this during
heavy traffic or at night.
Uncontrolled
airport radio
Start listening well away from the airport. Overfly above
pattern altitude if you are uncertain of pattern or procedures.
Adhere to AIM recommended procedures. Doing otherwise can lead
to enforcement proceedings if something happens. IFR inbounds
can be expected not to follow standard procedures.
Report all legs of pattern entry and the pattern itself. Include
your altitude and direction where practical. Acknowledge whether
you have any reported or unreported traffic in sight, or not
in sight. Advise when you have cleared the runway after landing.
Make a full 360 prior to taking the active on departure. Adhere
to airport abatement procedures and advise traffic of your departure
intentions.
Uncontrolled airports may be either UNICOM, in which case the
frequency is on the sectional, or not, where the frequency is
automatically 122.9. There is no FAR requirement to use the radio
at uncontrolled airports but common sense dictates that the radio
be used. These are pilot controlled airports which should be
addressed from at least 10 miles out. "Rio Vista UNICOM
Cessna 1234X Antioch bridge at 2000 request landing advisory
Rio Vista", all subsequent calls are addressed to traffic
giving airport name as first and last items. Be accurate in giving
all pattern positions and altitudes.
Uncontrolled airports put the burden of traffic control and communications
on the pilots. The see and be seen concept is the primary collision
avoidance system. The more frequently and accurately you give
your location, position, and altitude the safer your operation.
At pilot controlled airports it is important to give traffic,
and procedure advisories to other pilots. This is especially
true if non-standard procedures prevail. Initial contact either
with UNICOM or traffic should be at least 10 miles out. If unable
to determine recommended 45 degree to downwind entry overfly
at twice pattern altitude to determine favored runway. Report
on 45, downwind, base final, and clear of runway. If the uncontrolled
airport has no assigned altitude use 1000' AGL. Be aware that
non-radio cropdusters or ultralights may be using the field.
Besides the problems of orientation and communication at an airport
there exists aircraft positioning. Common faults during arrivals
at airports consist of not arriving on downwind at pattern altitude,
failing to be properly trimmed, failing to initiate downwind
turn far enough away from airport, failing to make downwind turn
parallel to runway, and failing to correct for wind on downwind.
Not infrequently, all of the above will occur with one arrival
for the wrong runway or even the wrong airport.
Once in the pattern it is vital that the pilot recognize the
priorities of flying. Fly the plane first, navigate, communicate.
Get airspeed under control, fly the proper altitudes and patterns,
space yourself for traffic, communicate only if the first two
elements are correct. Your ability to divide attention in and
out of the cockpit is one of the test criteria. Altitude on downwind
should be held within 100 feet and approach speeds within 10
knots. These are maximum allowable variations. 20 feet and 4
knots are instructional maximums for recommendation to take the
test.
Light Series
The light gun is used by ATC towers, in the event of radio
failure, to move and sequence aircraft. In general all GREEN
signals permit progress except a flashing green in the air means
return. All RED signals mean don't or stop except on the ground
the flashing red means clear the runway. A flashing white has
no meaning in the air and means to return on the ground. With
prior arrangement, light signals may be used to leave or enter
a controlled airport.
One way to learn the light signals is by their peculiarities:
Steady red means to stop on the ground and to stop in the
air which can only be done by circling.
The other red light means to move (leave) in the air and on the
ground. The flashing red on the ground tells you to move
clear from the runway or where ever you are. The area is unsafe.
In the air the same flashing red means the airport is unsafe
for landing which is another way of telling you to move
out of the area.
The alternating red and green suggests extreme caution
air or ground.
It is the only light other than the steady green, that means
the same both in the air and on the ground.
Steady green means to takeoff or land.
The flashing green clears you for taxi, and in the air,
to return to await landing clearance of steady green.
The flashing white only applies to ground movement and
tells you to return from whence you started. A steady
white has no meaning any time.
A good procedure for practice is to face the tower during run-up
and ask ground control for a light series. The sires may be continuous
or you can ask for specific series such as "return to parking",
"move from present position", etc. It is better to
practice this way than just to see lights.
B. Task; TRAFFIC PATTERNS
REFERENCES: AC 61-21, AC 61-23;
AIM
TRAFFIC PATTERNS PARAMETERS
P 1. Shows knowledge of pattern elements, procedures at all
types of airports. Uses and follows Clearances, commands, acknowledgments,
call ups, rules, regulations. Is aware of hazards of wake turbulence
and wind shear.
P 1. Aircraft control, speed, orientation, approach slope, P
2. Uses appropriate traffic pattern procedures and spacing
P 3. Uses standard spacing in the pattern, collision avoidance
P 4. Complies with local pattern requirements and emergency potentials.
P 5. Corrects for wind to maintain safe ground track and runway
alignment, division of attention.
P 6. Orients flight path to comply with local runway parameters.
P 7. Maintains altitude + 100’ and airspeed +
10 knots in pattern.
P 8. Uses and completes checklist
EX Controlled, uncontrolled, pattern, procedures, collision avoidance,
drift, pattern altitude, communications, speeds. While the AIM
in 4- 3-3 puts forward a standard procedure, every local airport
jurisdiction adds variations to the standard as to pattern altitude,
direction, distance and avoidance areas. Often these variations
do not appear in the A/FD. A pilot should make it a point to
become familiar with as many local airports as practical. Being
familiar includes talking with locals and reading all available
bulletin boards.
An airport with an operating control tower creates a Class D
airspace communications requirement and if IFR conditions exist
has an active Class Delta airspace. (Some airports without control
towers can have active Class Echo airspace if a qualified weather
observer is available. An AWOS or ASOS counts as an observer.
All movements in Class D airspace must be below 200 kts, (new)
are authorized by clearances which with one exception (takeoff)
must be acknowledged. Takeoff clearances not to be acknowledged.
If an ATIS exists it should be obtained before contact with ATC.
Standard entries are from 45 degrees to downwind and require
no request. Downwind is entered and flown at designated pattern
altitude as required by local authorities. Where local ordinances
and FAR come into conflict due to cloud conditions, abide by
the FARs. Pattern altitude is maintained until turning base.
Base or straight in arrivals may be requested or given by ATC.
The use of a CHECKLIST for descent, pre-landing, landing, post
landing, taxi, and shutdown is a test requirement.
The size of the downwind, base, and final is a variable depending
upon the performance capability of the aircraft, wind conditions,
and pattern altitude. For light aircraft a cruise speed entry
to downwind will give extension as the aircraft slows and maintains
pattern altitude to the base turn or key position. The base turn
may be adjusted to correct for being high or low. Test standards
require that the final be at least 1/4 mile long. Corrections
of headings and adjustments for ground speeds are made according
to wind conditions.
Allowance must be made where pattern altitudes are other than
the 1000' noise abatement standard. Standard departures are at
45 degrees from runway heading. While straight-out, crosswind,
and downwind departures may be requested a preferred request
would be, "on course (destination)". Since all communications
are recorded and kept 15 days, such departure requests serve
as mini-flight plans and provide ATC with a more precise route
for traffic advisories to other aircraft. While ATC may request
a turn at any time speed and altitude permits, most pattern and
turn altitudes are set by local governmental agencies.
ATC may request changes in pattern for purposes of expediting
traffic or safety. If given a command, execute the command and
then make your acknowledgment on the radio. Aircraft may be told
to slow down, expedite, change runways, go around, make 360's,
180's, or 270's, circle, extend, make short approach, follow,
report, say position, say altitude, advise, etc. Frequently,
it may be to the pilots advantage to request any of the above
if he feels it will help his situation. On a pilot initiated
go-around no communications are necessary.
Planning the airport arrival ahead of time prevents problems.
Get the ATIS, if any, and listen for inbound/outbound communications
to get an idea of traffic density and conflicts. Use the ATIS
to help you select a call up point well outside the Class Delta
airspace. How far out depends upon the performance of your aircraft.
Where possible use some visual reference point for your 45 degree
to downwind entry. Otherwise use the left/right rear 45 degree
runway numbers from the heading indicator for aid. Base and straight-in
approaches require 2 mile reports so plan a visual reference
point for these callu-ups. If no reference points exist make
an estimate by counting runway lengths. ATC reduces its load
by expediting your arrivals and departures; you should help by
planning and communicating.
See instructional materials on airports with towers
C. Task:
AIRPORT-RUNWAY LIGHTING-MARKING:
REFERENCES: References; AC 61-21, AC 61-23, AIM 2-1-1 through
2-3-14
Objective. Determine if applicant:
P l. Knows different airport markings and lighting
P 2. Identifies/interprets markings and lighting
P 3. Taxiway center lines, holding bars, yoke positions
EX 1. Airport markings and lighting, numbers, white, orange,
green, red, aids
2. In the recent past the AIM has made numerous changes in the
airport marking system. Most airports are behind in catching
up to the changes in the AIM. I suggest you study the AIM as
referenced above and correlate this with several airports to
see how compliance is performed.
Item:: The tower for the rotating beacon at Santa Monica is one
that once served along a beacon lighted airway before WWII.
Most airports have some combination of windsocks, tetrahedrons,
runway T indicators or ATIS to give wind direction. The pilot
should use these as well as waves, dust, and smoke. Standard
patterns are to the left but a segmented circle, usually around
the windsock may show otherwise. An amber light at night at the
windsock indicates right traffic. Civil airports may have white,
green, or white/green beacons. Military airports have green/white-white
beacons.
Runways have white center lines. Taxiways have orange center
lines. Hold lines are multiple solid/broken lines. The taxiway
center lines are supposed to give safe clearances to the side.
Where no lines exist the entire liability rests on the pilot.
Two way taxiways often have additional colors.
Night taxi lighting, if any, consists of blue lights at sides
of taxiways and green recessed lights on the centerlines. Orange
lights indicate hold bars. White lights outline the sides of
runways with red/green at the ends. The red/green end lights
depend upon your position. Green will show as you approach for
landing, red will show at the far end of the runway. Flashing
strobe lights are sometimes used to help you find the end of
the runway. Many airports have VASI lights both day and night
to assist you on the glide path. Red over white, you're all right,
red red for low, white white for high.
If you think brighter lights will help you find the field or
land just ask the tower, if open. Where airport lights can be
controlled by keying the CTAF (Common Traffic Advisory Frequency)
the intensity may be controllable by the number of times the
radio is keyed.) Instrument runways have several white stripes
just past the numbers. Precision instrument runways will have
distance markers as well. The number on the runway corresponds
to the nearer 10 degrees of magnetic course. The sum of the digits
at either end of the runway are equal. Runway 32 (3+2 = 5) and
the other end is Runway 14 (1+4 = 5)
Some runways can be used from only one direction. Others require
special approach/landing procedures because of terrain. Do not
fly to an unfamiliar field for the first time at night. If you
are unable to complete a landing in three tries, go elsewhere.
The interpretation of the runway information on the segmented
circle at uncontrolled airports can be confusing. The base of
the L is the base leg going toward the stem. It may be extended
to the right or left. One way to think of it is by calling the
base of the L the base leg. By flying in on the
base leg to the stem you can determine if the turn to final (stem)
is right or left. It should be noted that the orientation of
the small ends of the windsock and the tetrahedron are opposite.
You land with the small end of the windsock and the large end
of the tetrahedron toward you.
Weather
Briefing Card
1-800-992-7433
1. Pilot qualifications
2. Aircraft number and certification
3. Departure point
4. Departure time and enroute time
5. Route
6. Destination
7. Altitude
8. Weather briefing
Standard Briefing
Adverse Conditions
VFR/IFR Advice
Synopsis
Present conditions
Forecast
Winds at 12, 9, 6, 3
NOTAMS
Aircraft Charts
Vx
Vy
Vso
Best glide
Va
Vno
Vne
Weight and Balance
Weight--Arm--Moment
Empty
Fuel
Front seat
Rear seat
Baggage
Total
Flight Plan
Preflight
--Weather
--Route
--Courses
--Altitudes
--Nav intersections
--Com frequencies
--Hazards
--Aircraft inspection
--Papers
Flight
Post flight
Undisturbed
Preflight
Distraction and return during a preflight inspection can either
result in a complete inspection or a partial. Distraction can
kill you....literally!! It can happen anytime. Someone asks you
a question, or some small thing occurs that takes you away from
the preflight. Without a fixed pattern of inspection, it's very
possible to return to the inspection at a different location.
THAT can mean trouble. You can miss something you otherwise would
have noticed. Forming a fixed pattern for inspections helps a
great deal in several ways.
The first I just mentioned. The second, and a bit harder to see
on the surface, is psychological, especially for those who fly
the same type aircraft all the time. By fixing the inspection
pattern, your mind will
adjust to pointing you toward the items you are checking in a
specific order. As you move around the airplane, you will add
items you might have neglected on the last inspection and your
habit pattern will place that item neatly in order for the next
inspection. This process continues until you reach the "perfect"
inspection. Over time, a mental signal will go off if you miss
something. That's important, and worthy of forming this habit
pattern.
My story is quite simple. I was distracted one day at an air
show in the middle of a preflight by someone wanting an autograph.
I had to walk away from the inspection to comply. There was a
discussion, and my mind was occupied with other things for a
period of time. Had I returned to the inspection at a different
point than where I had left, (and I mean skipping just one item,
not a general area) I might have missed the rather large stuffed
animal someone had kindly jammed into my carb ram air shaft on
the 51.
The development of good habit patterns is something I believe
is one of the most important, if not THE most important aspects
of flight training! It's incumbent on every flight instructor
to make sure that students begin developing these habit patterns
from day one!
Dudley Henriques
See instructional material on training.
Flight
Planning
--Under present conditions it is important that you check
NOTAMS prior to every takeoff.
--www.weather.com for
airport, winds and radar pictures
--A weather briefing is not official unless it is recorded and
stored for 30 days.
--The difference between DUAT and DUATS is that DUATS.com
is plain language weather info.
--Enflight stores briefing and user name and code
--Enflight.com Wxpert sets up flight planning, routing according
to time selected. Takes 4 seconds.
--Enflight TAFs and Metars are color coded from green to red
according to nature of weather conditions.
--Aeroplanner.com draws route on
chart that you can print.
--AOPA will let you print all charts free with taxi diagrams
of airports.
--A flight plan with the FSS costs $35 DUATS costs .25 cents.
Difference is, "VFR not recommended".
--Weather teaching should emphasize selection of weather to have
while flying.
--Reading TAF and METAR does not help in reading weather outside
the door.
--Prior to every takeoff say, "Today is the DAY" so
you can anticipate the day an engine failure occurs.
--Surprised how President Bush used very similar phrase in talking
about the next terrorist event (1-29-02) However he is/was a pilot.
Leaning
Presume you usually lean for taxi. Lycoming suggests that there
is no need to enrich during runup since you are not going to
full power. However interesting lessons can be learned by leaning
for taxi.
--Should you be a bit too lean, there will be no rpm drop when
you check the carburetor heat. Just put the mixture in a bit
and check again to get a drop in rpm.
--Checking the magnetos with a well leaned engine will not produce
the usual rpm drop, either.
--Should you initiate a takeoff with a lean mixture the engine
will let you know that a more rich mixture is
required.
Exhaust Temperature Gauge
Brian wrote
The EGT is useful in properly leaning the mixture. With power set, the more
you lean the mixture, the higher the EGT, until a peak is hit. Beyond that
peak, the EGT drops, and eventually the engine looses power. You usually lean
to peak EGT, then enrich the mixture enough to lower the EGT back down
two notches.
Corky wrote:
The Cessna Training Manual actually calls for the airplane to be leaned below
peak EGT. They state that you should reach cruising altitude, pull the mixture
out until the needle peaks, keep pulling it till it begins to lower, then turn
the mixture in until you've achieved 25 to 50 degrees below the peak you saw.
The gauge in our 172 had two needles, one that you could set as a guideline,
the other recorded ETC. It also said that you could lean until the rpm began
to drop, and then lean further till you got a specified rpm drop. I forget
exactly what that rpm drop is supposed to be. Could be as much as 150 rpm.
This also would be leaning past peak, even if you did not have an EGT gauge.
In the POH for the Cessna I trained in, it also stated that you could lean the
engine out during climb. In this case you leaned for maximum rpm, which is
another way of saying leaning for best power, which is a
setting on the rich side of peak. You can be obsessive about this and lean
every 30 seconds or minute, or just lean once in a while. Gene says: Rich
mixture in climb on fixed propeller aircraft is a cooling factor.
If you lean during climb, you must watch the temperature.
One more way of leaning during the climb is to note the EGT temperature during
the takeoff, and lean to that temperature as you climb. That way you will
never over lean during the climb as the mixture is always over rich for full
power (with the mixture full forward, sea level) and as you climb and the air
thins, the mixture becomes more rich which has the effect of cooling off the
EGT. So leaning during the climb simply restores the mixture close to the
takeoff mixture setting, if you adjust to the takeoff temperature. Gene says:
In climb watch the engine temperature. Heat is the greatest enemy of your
engine.
During local airwork training we did not bother with leaning, I only learned
about that when we were headed out on cross-country. My instructor was
reluctant to go into it in a big way, he taught the "lean till it
stumbles then richen it out till it didn't" routine. I noticed that when
descending, if the mixture was full rich, that EGT gauge was bottomed.
Little Things that Make
a Big Difference
–Start your flight planning four days before.
--Get an ‘Outlook Briefing’
--Get a ‘Standard Briefing’ same day
--The farther into the planning you get the more difficult ‘no-go’
becomes.
--For out of area cell phone contact get the 866 number for the FSS instead of
the 800 number.
--For Oakland it is 866 469-7828 works only on out of area cell phones.
–Being able to use DUATS is part of the PTS but the FSS has a tape of your
weather briefing.
--The FSS can be visited but not a freely as in years past.
--When in the air the best weather is via the local airport’s AWOS or
contact Flight Watch on 122.0
--Don’t for get to talk to other pilots along the way. Good way to make
friends.
--Most current weather can be on local ATIS about 10 to the hour, from FSS at
five after hour.
--When filing a flight plan, leave your cell phone number so they can contact
you when you forget to close.
--Use radar services as much as you can but learn to talk the talk for best
service.
--Initial contact with radar is just a ‘hello’, nothing more.
--When answered give accurate position, altitude, intentions, requests and
read-back.
--You and your qualities are recognized by the questions you ask and the
answers you give.
--Know what you know, ask when you don’t know. Ask even if you’re not
sure.
--You are more likely to get what you want when you talk like you know what
you are doing.
What’s It All About Alfie?
1. It is not just procedures.
2. Every maneuver has a distinctive sound and feel sequence when done
correctly.
3. You need to think about what comes next when learning, you know when you
don’t need to think.
4. You will know when something is not as it should be just by watching the
nose.
5. The nose does everything before the airspeed indicator.
Do FARs and Training Improve
Safety?
---Without a plan, flying in the U.S. succeeded with government
supervision and training programs.
---In 1964 government regulations began an organized training program to teach
pilots.
---By 1968 the program and plan including CFI refresher clinics began to show positive results.
---In June of 1968 Gene Whitt starts flying lessons.
---By 1971 every FAA region had some form of educational/safety program
showing safety improvements
---In nearly every year since 1971 there has been improvements in General
Aviation safety.
---Primary emphasis has been in flight instruction with FAA guidance.
---Only one out of every 400 U.S. citizens can fly airplanes
---You have only one chance in a million of being killed in an airplane
---Flying nation wide has been safer for every year of my flying career.
Technology Is Here to be
Taught
---The teachers of flying are not keeping up with what is happening
---Instructors teaching instructors is way to go.
---Technology will ease workload in the cockpit once understood
---Major hazard is head-down time when problems develop.
Level
Flight
--While the initial standard may be lower, you should perform
all maneuvers toward a student goal of 5-5-50. This means within
five degrees of heading, five knots of airspeed and fifty feet
of altitude. Pilots 2-2-20
--Level aircraft using wingtip and horizon then hold nose in position while trimming. Don’t reduce power until you have reached level cruise speed. Let go of yoke and watch the nose. Any rise or fall of the nose is indicative of improper trim setting. Position nose again and re-trim until nose holds level flight. Put hands up by windshield. Nose should go down. Place hands overhead behind you. Nose should go up. Only way to fly.
--Put aircraft into 30-degree bank and trim nose-up half a turn. Let go yoke and use rudder to keep angle of bank. Aircraft should be able to maintain altitude and bank without your touching yoke. Left or right no difference. This ability is designed into the aircraft. Aircraft will attempt to level itself at less than 30 degrees of bank. Aircraft will attempt to roll on over at more than 30 degrees of bank. Knowing the how to use the inherent stability of the aircraft makes flying safer. Practice flying with just rudder.
--Work on 30 degree banks with 90 degree turns continuously alternating from left to right. Always clear when the wing is above the horizon. Lead recovery by 15 degrees and try to get bank reversals to occur on selected headings.
--When doing alternate turns without stopping, clear your turn in the other direction before the wing drops
--Work on leaning procedure every time you level off. It should be done at any level flight altitude. Make use of mixture as common as use of carburetor heat. Just don’t get the two crossed up.
--Make going to slow-flight a matter of time. Learn to have the aircraft transition from level cruise to hands-off slow-flight in a matter of seconds. Any such transition can be done in half the normal time you usually take with practice. Time how long it takes you. Now, work to cut it in half. Works.
--Apply flaps without looking at flap indicator. Use 3-4 count for every ten degrees of extension. Air loads speed up retraction so use different count. Practice milking up flaps on ground before doing so in the air.
--At altitude, make opportunities to fly minimum controllable. The true test of flying skill is finding your own lower speed limits and knowing what it takes to maneuver when there.
How Many Hours to Solo
No one approached the question from an instructor's perspective on news group rec.aviation.student.
---I do Not teach towards solo.
---I DO teach toward making a safe and competent pilot
---I teach at an airport with dual parallel runways where ground movement is more difficult than air movement.
---Prior to solo my students know the arrival, ground and departure procedures for the four airports in each quadrant from their home field.
---In the process they have a 25 mile radius circle within which they know where they are, how to get where they want to go and most importantly what to say on the radio in the process coming and going
---Immediately prior to solo we fly early in conditions that allow the
tower to direct us to use as many of the eight possible runways.
Takes 45 minutes and my students can then handle every change in wind and runway that ATC has to offer.
---Solo is anti-climatic.
---Next solos consist of dual and then immediate solo to the four
nearby airports three of which are towered and one of these Class C. .
---My night flight is first destination over 50nm away and then full-stop taxi-back landings with a stop and go to all the airports we have flown to before. The taxiing time is the best part of the lesson.
---First dual cross country has one where I help in the planning and everything works 'perfectly'.
---Second dual cross country is planned by the student and nothing works perfectly.
---Third cross country is solo in least familiar direction.
---Proficiency for checkride takes three to five hours.
---How many hours to solo and license? Hours are not a criteria.
I do not now, nor have I ever considered hours as a factor in my
instruction. My judgment of success is, "It is a poor student who does not exceed his teacher."
What to Do When You Don’t Know What to Do
---CCCC ---This is an emergency situation
---Climb, Communicate, confess and comply
---Your last used frequency is a good first try
---You could make a blind call on 122.1 and listen on VORs in the area
---121,5 may get you some help if the monitoring required by ATC is there
---122.2 is a relatively universal FSS frequency again if you can get an answer
---122.0 is a good call between 6a.m. and 10 p.m. for Flight Watch
---Try to find any paper with a frequency written on it
---The less experienced pilot is reluctant to reveal any inadequacy, while…
---The experienced pilot recognizes the relative values of pride and help.
Finding Airports as a Skill
---Use any prominent charted landmark as a directional and distance reference
---Talk to locals on the ground or in the air as to what they use to reference the location
---Look for charted roads that lead to airports
…Use VOR radials to take you to the airport
---Once you find an airport make a collection of non-charted references for future use
---Find a collection of at least three things in the area that will help you next time.
---Use a pictorial reference that gives you things that will help you find the airport.
Where is that airport?
---If you don’t know the identifiable points leading you there
--- Airports in different circumstances will be difficult to find.
---The position of the sun, visibility and ceiling can individually or collectively make difficulties
---What makes you know where an airport is has to do with your awareness of landmarks.
---You want to learn where to look for a radio call-up using landmark distance not direction distance
---In many parts of the country compass directions are contradictory to local road names and directions
---The coast of California is a huge curve so that going south will soon put you over the Pacific Ocean
---Los Angeles is east of Reno; From the Bay Area you go easterly to Monterey and North to Reno
---My first question to a new pilot is, “Which was is North?”
---Would you believe that there are cultures in which the concept of directions does not exist
---An airport does not have to be where you think it is or where you are looking
---If you do not scan to both sides of the cockpit as well as in front you may just fly by
---Seasonal changes make a difference as to how valid certain landmark aids may be
---Being low makes finding an airport more difficult than being high
---Arrive in vicinity of airports by at least twice pattern altitude
---Water in all forms, pond, lake, shoreline, stream can be useful as a marker or landmark
---Seasonal changes in natural water requires extra attention
---Seasonal changes in foliage such as leaves and grasses require visual adjustment
---Roads are most useful at night
Night Location Is Difficult for Many
---Where you look is another way of knowing where to look
---There is a time to look out in different directions
---The turning final is seen differently than short final as seen.
---Nothing is seen more differently than the flare
---Looking where you think an airport is can fixate your vision away from the airport
---All the occupants in the cockpit tend to look in the same direction.
Remembering the
Little Things Makes a Difference
---Power settings and configurations for desired performance
---A landmark that tells you where you are
---Every thing you can remember has potential importance
---Wasteful repetitious actions are indicative of not using a checklist
---Smoothness is very much in your touch…
---The way you hold the flight and engine controls makes a difference
---Looking outside is done differently than inside
---Fixation in either case has inherent dangers
---Knowing what to look for is critical importance all the time
Making choices
Is the Most Used Constant in Aviation
…
One of the more difficult choices is not to fly because of…
---Aircraft problems, weather, illness, currency, cost
---A more common choice is selection of route, procedure and altitude
---Other choices are fuel, weight and balance,
What’s So Important About …
---Knowing where you are?
If you don’t know where you are
---
How are you going to know what to say on the radio.
---
How do you know a safe altitude according to FARs, night, etc.
Whitt and Wisdom
---There is no point in having wanted to learn to fly without being willing to take the first flight.
---If there is anything small, shallow, arrogant, or ugly about a person, flying is an excellent cure.
---It is what you do when you have nothing to do, that reveals your quality or lack as quality as a pilot.
---A conceited pilot never gets anywhere because he thinks he is already there. The best pilot I know was unable to do anything with his skills. He sells home alarm systems
---The easiest level of learning is through the mistakes of others
---A good instructor knows what he can’t teach and advises the student
accordingly.
---Talent does what it can, genius does what it must.
---Good fortune takes preparation
---The best teacher is also a student
---The smart thing to do is to begin trusting your intuitions
---Smart flying is a constant struggle for self-improvement
---Put a speed bump between your brain and your mouth
---Ignorance is content to stand still with its back to the truth
---TO AGE IS HUMAN, NOT TO SHOW IT IS DEVINE
----As an older pilot I am prone to be unrealistic in my
self-evaluation of my flying skills.
---I plan to join the UFOs, United Flying
Octogenarians.
What is an FAA
Reference to the Student and Pilot
A reference Identifies the publication(s) that describe(s) the TASK.
Descriptions of TASKs are not included in these standards because this
information can be found in the current issue of the listed reference.
Publications other than those listed may be used for references if their
content conveys substantially the same meaning as the referenced publications.
These practical test standards are based on the following references.
For example…
---The Airplane Flying Handbook is a regulatory text to the same extent that
the PTS is a regulatory text.
Every Practical Test Standards Text.
FAA-H-8083-3 Airplane Flying Handbook
FAA-H-8083-15 Instrument Flying Handbook
AIM Aeronautical Information Manual
AFD Airport Facility Directory
NOTAMs Notices to Airmen
Other Pilot Operating Handbook
FAA-Approved Flight Manual
Navigation Charts
What this means is that ignorance of anything contained in these references is never an excuse or reason not to know what is there to know. Worry. A NOTAM may be issued while you are airborne tomorrow.
Glossary
Complex Airplane — An airplane that has a retractable landing
gear, flaps, and a controllable pitch propeller.
Dihedral — The upward angle of an airplane’s wings with respect to
the horizontal. Dihedral contributes to the lateral stability of an airplane.
Directional Stability — Stability about the vertical axis.
Dynamic Stability — The stability of an aircraft which causes it,
when once disturbed from straight and level flight, to return to a condition
of straight and-level flight in progressively diminishing oscillations.
High-Performance Airplane — An airplane with an engine of more than
200 horsepower.
Induced Drag — That part of total drag which is created by the
production of lift. Induced drag increases with a decrease in airspeed.
Keel Effect — The steadying influence exerted by the side area of the
fuselage and vertical stabilizer acting laterally about the longitudinal axis.
Lateral Stability — Stability about the longitudinal axis.
Longitudinal Stability — Stability about the lateral axis. A
desirable characteristic of an airplane, whereby it tends to return to its
trimmed angle of attack after displacement.
Maneuverability — The ability of an aircraft to be directed along a
desired flight path and to withstand the stresses imposed upon it.
Maneuvering Speed (VA) — The maximum speed at which you
can use full, abrupt control movement without overstressing the airframe.
Parasite Drag — That part of total drag created by the form or shape
of airplane parts. Parasite drag increases with an increase in airspeed.
Pressurized Airplane — Any airplane in which the cabin area is sealed
off and pressurized.
Spin — An aggravated stall which results in the airplane descending
in a helical or corkscrew path.
Stability — That property of a body which causes it, when its equilibrium is disturbed, to develop forces or moments tending to restore the original condition.
Stalls — A rapid decrease in lift caused by the separation of airflow from the airfoil surface, brought on by exceeding the critical angle of attack.
Static Stability — The characteristic of an aircraft that, when
disturbed from a condition of rest, will tend to return to the condition of
rest.
Sweepback — The backward slant of a wing, horizontal tail, or other
airfoil surface; the backward slant of a leading or trailing edge of an
airfoil.
Airfoil Vortices — Circular air flow made by movement of a foil
capable of creating lift. As a lifting surface moves a low pressure is
created. The air flow from the high-pressure area to the low-pressure area
around surface ends roll into rotating vortices. called wake turbulence. The
degree of turbulence is determined by wing loading, weight and speed of
movement. The vortices from medium to heavy aircraft can be of extremely high
velocity, and hazardous to smaller aircraft.
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Airport and Ground Reference Pattern